Omejitve proste trgovine - University of Ljubljana
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Transcript Omejitve proste trgovine - University of Ljubljana
Omejitve proste trgovine
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Premik trgovinske politike v smeri
odpravljanja omejitev “znotraj meja”
t.i. “barriers within the border”
Logična smer razvoja zaradi primarnega
uspeha GATT/WTO sporazumov
Zmanjševanje carinskih stopenj in količinskih
omejitev
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Reakcije držav podpisnic:
Novi načini omejevanja trgovine
Skupni imenovalec novih “ukrepov” je visoka
stopnja subtilnosti in zakrivanja
Gre za ukrepe, ki omejujejo prosto trgovino s
sklicevanjem na “klasične” standarde, ki naj bi
bili povsem v domeni nacionalnih držav kot
suverenih subjektov mednarodnega javnega
prava
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Standardi
Zdravje državljanov
Varnost državljanov
Varstvo okolja
Razlikovanje v ureditvah od države do
države
Razlika med “standardi” predstavlja
možnost za protekcionistično politiko
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Tudi če ni namena protekcionizma
Težave pri načrtovanju koherentne trgovinske
politike
Klasično vprašanje –
Razmejitev med pravico države do suverenega
urejanja področij,ki se dotikajo varnosti in
zdravja državljanov in dolžnostjo neomejevanja
(razen utemeljenega) trgovine do mednarodne
skupnosti
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
“The decades long process of lowering
trade barriers resembles the draining of a
lake that reveals mountain peaks formerly
concealed or (more pessimistically) the
peeling of an onion that reveals
innumerable layers of barriers.” – Miles
Kahler, Trade and Domestic Differences,
1996
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
70, 80, 90-a leta 20. stoletja
Rast količine in dvig intenzivnosti standardov, ki
naj ščitijo človekovo okolje, varnost in zdravje
Odsev moderne socialne države
Zdravje, varnost, čisto okolje postajajo
ekonomske dobrine
Višji standard – drugačne dobrine prevladujejo
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Povpraševanje po “novih” ekonomskih
dobrinah pripelje do novih regulatornih
ukrepov (politike na področjih varnosti,
okolja…)
Ti ukrepi lahko predstavljajo ovire za
mednarodno trgovino
Gre za področja, ki naj bi klasično ne sodili
v domeno mednarodnih trgovinskih
sporazumov
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Gre za področja pod suvereno oblastjo
držav – popolnoma notranja razmerja!!
Tipičen primer
“eko-protekcionizem” vs. Liberalizacija
Kje so temeljne težave?
Države izvoznice
Države uvoznice
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Domači izdelovalci –
Težave z uvoženimi izdelki, ki so bili izdelani na
podlagi zelo nizkih standardov v državi izvora
Takšni izdelki imajo določeno vrsto subvencije
(nižji stroški zaradi nižjih standardov)
Zahtevajo t.i. level playing field
Kaj pa komparativne prednosti?
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Težave predvsem v odnosu
Države v razvoju
Želijo uporabljati svoje (ponavadi) nižje okoljske in
zdravstvene standarde kot komparativno prednost
Razvite države
Zaradi višjih domačih standardov so domači izdelki
dražji zato naj bi bile komparativne prednosti DVR
v bistvu protekcionistični ali diskriminatorni ukrepi
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Tipična primera
Delaney Clause v ZDA
“zero-tolerance” klavzula, kar zadeva karcinogene elemente
Prepoved tudi, kar zadeva DDT
Pesticid, ki je dovoljen v skladu s Codex Alimentarius
• CA ustvarjen 1963 (WHO, FAO) z namenom zagotoviti varovanje
pravic potrošnikov na področju prehrane in zagotoviti spoštovanje
poštenih poslovnih običajev pri trgovini s hrano.
Preseganje standardov iz CA pomeni prima facie presumpcijo
ukrepov, ki predstavljajo OMEJITEV proste trgovine
ZDA bo prisiljena dovoliti prihod izdelkov, ki so “kontaminirani”.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Britanske klobase (označevanje)
Britanski izvoznik prodaja klobase v Nemčiji
Predpis od njega zahteva, da svoje izdelke označuje in
trži pod terminom
“pork-filled offal tubes” in ne
“sausages”
Zahteva nedvomno izraža sestavo
prehrambenega artikla, ima pa lahko tudi
negativne učinke kar zadeva marketing
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Regulatorni okvir
OECD
GATT/WTO
NAFTA
EU
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
OECD (GUIDING PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE INTERNATIONAL
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES 1972)
Where valid reasons for differences do not exist, governments should seek
harmonization of environmental policies, for instance, with respect to timing and
the general scope of regulation for particular industries to avoid the unjustified
disruption of international trade patterns and of the international allocation of
resources that may arise from diversity of national environmental standards.
Measures taken to protect the environment should be framed as far as possible
in such a manner as to avoid the creation of non-tariff barriers to trade.
Where products are traded internationally and where there could be significant
obstacles to trade, governments should seek common standards for polluting
products and agree on the timing and general scope of regulations for particular
products.
It is highly desirable to define in common, as rapidly as possible, procedures for
checking conformity to product standards established for the purpose of
environmental control. Procedures for checking conformity to standards, to be
applied by an exporting country to the satisfaction of the importing country,
should be mutually agreed.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT/WTO
Art III/4
The products of the territory of any contracting party imported into
the territory of any other contracting party shall be accorded
treatment no less favourable than that accorded to like products of
national origin in respect of all laws, regulations and requirements
affecting their internal sale, offering for sale, purchase,
transportation, distribution or use. The provisions of this paragraph
shall not prevent the application of differential internal transportation
charges which are based exclusively on the economic operation of
the means of transport and not on the nationality of the product.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT/WTO (Note to III/4)
Any internal tax or other internal charge, or any law,
regulation or requirement of the kind referred to in
paragraph 1 which applies to an imported product and to
the like domestic product and is collected or enforced in
the case of the imported product at the time or point of
importation, is nevertheless to be regarded as an
internal tax or other internal charge, or a law, regulation
or requirement of the kind referred to in paragraph 1,
and is accordingly subject to the provisions of Article III.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Omogočeni so torej ukrepi, ki ne
predstavljajo diskriminatornih ukrepov.
Kaj pa je z “nediskriminatornimi” ukrepi?
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT III/1
internal taxes and other internal charges, and
laws, regulations and requirements affecting the internal sale,
offering for sale, purchase, transportation, distribution or use
of products, and internal quantitative regulations requiring the
mixture, processing or use of products in specified amounts
or proportions, should not be applied to
imported or domestic products so as to
afford protection to domestic production
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT III/1 predvideva dokazno breme
tožeče stranke – protekcionizem zaradi
nediskriminatornih ukrepov bo težko
dokazati!
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT XX
Subject to the requirement that such measures
are not applied in a manner which would
constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable
discrimination between countries where the
same conditions prevail, or a disguised
restriction on international trade, nothing in this
Agreement shall be construed to prevent the
adoption or enforcement by any contracting
party of measures:
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
(b) necessary to protect human, animal or
plant life or health;
(g) relating to the conservation of
exhaustible natural resources if such
measures are made effective in
conjunction with restrictions on domestic
production or consumption;
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Restriktivna razlaga izjem
Dokazno breme na stranki, ki uporabi
izjemo
GATT - primeri
Thai Cigarettes
http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/gattpanels/
thaicigarettes.pdf
Tuna/Dolphin
Herring and Salmon
http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/gattpanels/
canadaherring.pdf
Beef Hormones
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
Kaj paneli upoštevajo pri presoji ukrepov,
ki jih države uvajajo z “opravičilom”
varstva zdravja?
1. ali je ukrep razumen in namenjen promociji
legitimnih ciljev ali gre za prikrito diskriminacijo?
2. ali je ukrep utemeljen z znanstvenimi
argumenti (scientific risk assessment)?
3. ali je ukrep sorazmeren z zasledovanim
ciljem?
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
1. ali je ukrep razumen in namenjen promociji
legitimnih ciljev ali gre za prikrito diskriminacijo?
Ustrezen test?
T.i. “sham test”
Panel mora dejanje države (suverena!!!) okarakterizirati
kot slaboverno politiko
Gre za precejšen poseg v suverenost, predvsem pa za
povsem subjektivno presojo
Panel mora odločiti, kakšen je bil “resnični namen” države
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
2. ali je ukrep utemeljen z znanstvenimi
argumenti (scientific risk assessment)?
Kljub prima facie objektivnosti tega testa gre pogosto za
vrednostno odločanje
Rezultati povsem odvisni od uporabljene metodologije
Odločanje o nasprotujočih si znanstvenih
argumentacijah
Imajo člani panelov (pravniki, diplomati) znanja, ki jim
omogočajo takšno neodvisno odločanje?
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
3. ali je ukrep sorazmeren z zasledovanim
ciljem?
Proporcionalnost, Least Drastic Means test
Težave zaradi potrebe po karakterizaciji in vrednostni
oceni morebitnih alternativnih ukrepov, ki bi bili
sorazmerni
Lahko pride do aksiomatičnega, silogističnega odločanja
Pogosto paneli ne upoštevajo omejitev, ki enostavno ne
omogočajo uporabe alternativnih, manj restriktivnih
ukrepov!
Vprašanja glede znanstvene narave
ocenjevanja tveganj…
Del tega tudi Sporazum WTO o
sanitarnih in fitosanitarnih standardih
(Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and
Phytosanitary Measures 1995)
Namen vzpostaviti
?enoten?
?harmoniziran?
?učinkovit?
Sistem delovanja DČ na področju ukrepov
sanitarne in fitosanitarne narave
SPS sporazum
Kaj so sanitarni in fitosanitarni ukrepi?
1. Sanitary or phytosanitary measure — Any measure applied:
(a) to protect animal or plant life or health within the territory of the Member from
risks arising from the entry, establishment or spread of pests, diseases, diseasecarrying organisms or disease-causing organisms;
(b) to protect human or animal life or health within the territory of the Member
from risks arising from additives, contaminants, toxins or disease-causing
organisms in foods, beverages or feedstuffs;
(c) to protect human life or health within the territory of the Member from risks
arising from diseases carried by animals, plants or products thereof, or from the
entry, establishment or spread of pests; or
(d) to prevent or limit other damage within the territory of the Member from the
entry, establishment or spread of pests.
Sanitary or phytosanitary measures include all relevant laws, decrees,
regulations, requirements and procedures including, inter alia, end product
criteria; processes and production methods; testing, inspection, certification and
approval procedures; quarantine treatments including relevant requirements
associated with the transport of animals or plants, or with the materials
necessary for their survival during transport; provisions on relevant statistical
methods, sampling procedures and methods of risk assessment; and packaging
and labelling requirements directly related to food safety.
SPS sporazum
Področje ocenjevanja/omejevanja tveganj (risk
assessment)
DČ samostojno odločajo o tveganjih in ukrepih za
njihovo preprečevanje
Razlika v percepcijah tveganj (politični, ekonomski,
družbeni vplivi)
Potencialna omejevanja mednarodne trgovine
Različni sistemi, metode ocenjevanja, omejevanja
tveganj
Risk assessment / Precautionary principle
Zato SPS Agreement
Načelo nediskriminatornosti
Dvotirni sistem standardov za ukrepe
SPS sporazum
Načelo nediskriminatornosti / sorazmernosti (2. člen SPS)
Members have the right to take sanitary and phytosanitary measures
necessary for the protection of human, animal or plant life or health,
provided that such measures are not inconsistent with the provisions of
this Agreement.
2. Members shall ensure that any sanitary or phytosanitary measure is
applied only to the extent necessary to protect human, animal or
plant life or health, is based on scientific principles and is not maintained
without sufficient scientific evidence, except as provided for in
paragraph 7 of Article 5.
3. Members shall ensure that their sanitary and phytosanitary measures
do not arbitrarily or unjustifiably discriminate between Members
where identical or similar conditions prevail, including between their own
territory and that of other Members. Sanitary and phytosanitary
measures shall not be applied in a manner which would constitute a
disguised restriction on international trade.
SPS sporazum
SPS sporazum uvaja dvotirni sistem dovoljenih
ukrepov
Harmonizacijski standard /Avtonomni standard
3. člen SPS (Harmonizacijski standard)
(1) [t]o harmonize sanitary and phytosanitary measures
… Members shall base their sanitary or phytosanitary
measures on international standards, guidelines or
recommendations, where they exist; …
(2) Sanitary or phytosanitary measures which conform
to international standards, guidelines or
recommendations shall be deemed to be necessary to
protect human, animal or plant life or health, and
presumed to be consistent with the relevant provisions
of this Agreement and of GATT 1994.
SPS sporazum
SPS sporazum uvaja dvotirni sistem dovoljenih
ukrepov
Harmonizacijski standard /Avtonomni standard
3. člen SPS (Avtonomni standard)
3. Members may introduce or maintain sanitary or
phytosanitary measures which result in a higher level of
sanitary or phytosanitary protection than would be
achieved by measures based on the relevant
international standards, guidelines or recommendations,
if there is a scientific justification, or as a consequence
of the level of sanitary or phytosanitary protection a
Member determines to be appropriate in accordance
with the relevant provisions of paragraphs 1 through 8 of
Article 5.
SPS sporazum
Temeljna težava (kot ste lahko ugotovili…)
Avtonomni standard
SPS forsira harmonizacijo
Možnost DČ, da intenzivno odstopajo od mednarodno
dogovorjenih standardov, je omejena.
Beef Hormones
• Article 3.1 imposes an obligation on all Members to base their
sanitary measures on international standards except as
otherwise provided for in the SPS Agreement, and in particular
in Article 3.3 thereof. In this sense, Article 3.3 provides an
exception to the general obligation contained in Article 3.1.
Izrazito “napeta” intepretacija! - sledi tudi - sicer
nepravilna – odločitev panela, da je dokazno breme zato
na toženi stranki…
SPS sporazum
Dodatna težava kdaj so standardi, ki
odstopajo od mednarodnih, dovoljeni
(poleg nediskriminacije)
“…if there is a scientific justification…”
Ni sporazuma o metodi znanstvene
utemeljenosti
2 temeljni metodi
Risk assessment
Precautionary principle
SPS sporazum
Risk assessment
Klasična, znanstvena metoda
Znanost kot “nevtralni arbiter”
Ni vrednot pri odločanju
Širši družbeni konsenz ni pomemben/potreben
Širok manevrski prostor za potencialne kršitelje
(multinacionalke…)
Temeljni kriteriji:
Hazard identification
Dose-response evaluation
Human exposure evaluation
Risk characterization
SPS sporazum
Precautionary principle
RISK ASSESSMENT +
Upoštevanje družbenega konsenza
Upoštevanje preferenc potencialno ogroženih
Upoštevanje zgodovinskih, socialnih, političnih
parametrov
Ketelson:
• Those of us who support the Precautionary Principle do so in part because
we perceive our democratic rights to a clean environment and health have
been violated”
“This technocratic process (risk assessment) purports to put the decisions
into an objective framework but the process gives greater power to
corporate interests and tends to violate individual and collective rights to
health”
SPS sporazum
Pomanjkljivost odprta vrata za
protekcionizem…
Ameriški pogled:
The Precautionary Principle is a nebulous doctrine developed by Europeans as a
means to erect a trade barrier against any item that can be produced more
efficiently in the United States.
Evropski odgovor:
“We do not spend our days in Brussels – as some
might think – in Machiavellian plotting to apply
precaution to the detriment of US businesses”
(Margot Wallstrom: Head of European Union
Environmental Commission)