Transcript Omejitve proste trgovine - University of Ljubljana
Omejitve proste trgovine
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Premik trgovinske politike v smeri odpravljanja omejitev “znotraj meja” t.i. “
barriers within the border
” Logična smer razvoja zaradi primarnega uspeha GATT/WTO sporazumov Zmanjševanje carinskih stopenj in količinskih omejitev
GATT temeljna načela
Člen I.
General Most-Favoured-Nation Treatment
1. With respect to customs duties and charges of any kind imposed on or in connection with importation or exportation or imposed on the international transfer of payments for imports or exports, and with respect to the method of levying such duties and charges, and with respect to all rules and formalities in connection with importation and exportation, and with respect to all matters referred to in paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article III, any advantage, favour, privilege or immunity granted by any contracting party to any product originating in or destined for any other country shall be accorded immediately and unconditionally to the like product originating in or destined for the territories of all other contracting parties.
GATT temeljna načela
Člen III.(National Treatment)
1. The contracting parties recognize that internal taxes and other internal charges, and laws, regulations and requirements affecting the internal sale, offering for sale, purchase, transportation, distribution or use of products, and internal quantitative regulations requiring the mixture, processing or use of products in specified amounts or proportions, should not be applied to imported or domestic products so as to afford protection to domestic production.
2. The products of the territory of any contracting party imported into the territory of any other contracting party shall not be subject, directly or indirectly, to internal taxes or other internal charges of any kind in excess of those applied, directly or indirectly, to like domestic products. Moreover, no contracting party shall otherwise apply internal taxes or other internal charges to imported or domestic products in a manner contrary to the principles set forth in paragraph 1.
GATT temeljna načela
Člen XI General Elimination of Quantitative Restrictions
1. No prohibitions or restrictions other than duties, taxes or other charges, whether made effective through quotas, import or export licences or other measures, shall be instituted or maintained by any contracting party on the importation of any product of the territory of any other contracting party or on the exportation or sale for export of any product destined for the territory of any other contracting party.
GATT temeljna načela
Člen XX. General Exceptions
Subject to the requirement that such measures are not applied in a manner which would constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries where the same conditions prevail, or a disguised restriction on international trade, nothing in this Agreement shall be construed to prevent the adoption or enforcement by any contracting party of measures: (a)
necessary to protect public morals
; (b)
necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health
; (c)
relating to the importation or exportation of gold or silver
; (d) necessary to
secure compliance with laws or regulations which are not inconsistent with the provisions of this Agreement
deceptive practices; , including those relating to customs enforcement, the enforcement of monopolies operated under paragraph 4 of Article II and Article XVII, the protection of patents, trade marks and copyrights, and the prevention of (e) relating to the
products of prison labour;
(f) imposed for the
protection of national treasures of artistic, historic or archaeological value
; (g) relating to
the conservation of exhaustible natural resources
if such measures are made effective in conjunction with restrictions on domestic production or consumption;
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Reakcije držav podpisnic: Novi načini omejevanja trgovine Skupni imenovalec novih “ukrepov” je visoka stopnja subtilnosti in zakrivanja Gre za ukrepe, ki omejujejo prosto trgovino s sklicevanjem na “klasične” standarde, ki naj bi bili povsem v domeni nacionalnih držav kot suverenih subjektov mednarodnega javnega prava
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Standardi Zdravje državljanov Varnost državljanov Varstvo okolja Razlikovanje v ureditvah od države do države Razlika med “standardi” predstavlja možnost za protekcionistično politiko
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Tudi če ni namena protekcionizma Težave pri načrtovanju koherentne trgovinske politike Klasično vprašanje – Razmejitev med pravico države do suverenega urejanja področij,ki se dotikajo varnosti in zdravja državljanov in dolžnostjo neomejevanja (razen utemeljenega) trgovine do mednarodne skupnosti
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
“
The decades long process of lowering trade barriers resembles the draining of a lake that reveals mountain peaks formerly concealed or (more pessimistically) the peeling of an onion that reveals innumerable layers of barriers.”
– Miles Kahler, Trade and Domestic Differences, 1996
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
70, 80, 90-a leta 20. stoletja Rast količine in dvig intenzivnosti standardov, ki naj ščitijo človekovo okolje, varnost in zdravje Odsev moderne socialne države Zdravje, varnost, čisto okolje postajajo
ekonomske dobrine
Višji standard – drugačne dobrine prevladujejo
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Povpraševanje po “novih” ekonomskih dobrinah pripelje do novih regulatornih ukrepov (politike na področjih varnosti, okolja…) Ti ukrepi
lahko
predstavljajo ovire za mednarodno trgovino Gre za področja, ki naj bi klasično
ne sodili
v domeno mednarodnih trgovinskih sporazumov
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Gre za področja pod suvereno oblastjo držav – popolnoma notranja razmerja!!
Tipičen primer “eko-protekcionizem” vs. Liberalizacija Kje so temeljne težave?
Države izvoznice Države uvoznice
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Domači izdelovalci – Težave z uvoženimi izdelki, ki so bili izdelani na podlagi zelo nizkih standardov v državi izvora Takšni izdelki imajo določeno vrsto subvencije (nižji stroški zaradi nižjih standardov) Zahtevajo t.i.
level playing field
Kaj pa komparativne prednosti?
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Težave predvsem v odnosu Države v razvoju Želijo uporabljati svoje (ponavadi) nižje okoljske in zdravstvene standarde kot komparativno prednost Razvite države Zaradi višjih domačih standardov so domači izdelki dražji zato naj bi bile komparativne prednosti DVR v bistvu protekcionistični ali diskriminatorni ukrepi
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Tipična primera
Delaney Clause
v ZDA
“zero-tolerance”
klavzula, kar zadeva karcinogene elemente Prepoved tudi, kar zadeva DDT Pesticid, ki je dovoljen v skladu s
Codex Alimentarius
•
CA
ustvarjen 1963 (WHO, FAO) z namenom zagotoviti varovanje pravic potrošnikov na področju prehrane in zagotoviti spoštovanje poštenih poslovnih običajev pri trgovini s hrano.
Preseganje standardov iz CA pomeni
prima facie
presumpcijo ukrepov, ki predstavljajo OMEJITEV proste trgovine ZDA bo
prisiljena
dovoliti prihod izdelkov, ki so “kontaminirani”.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Britanske klobase (označevanje) Britanski izvoznik prodaja klobase v Nemčiji Predpis od njega zahteva, da svoje izdelke označuje in trži pod terminom “pork-filled offal tubes” in ne “sausages” Zahteva nedvomno izraža sestavo prehrambenega artikla, ima pa lahko tudi negativne učinke kar zadeva marketing
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Regulatorni okvir OECD GATT/WTO NAFTA EU
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
OECD (GUIDING PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES 1972) Where valid reasons for differences do not exist, governments should seek harmonization of environmental policies, for instance, with respect to timing and the general scope of regulation for particular industries to avoid the unjustified disruption of international trade patterns and of the international allocation of resources that may arise from diversity of national environmental standards. Measures taken to protect the environment should be framed as far as possible in such a manner as to avoid the creation of non-tariff barriers to trade. Where products are traded internationally and where there could be significant obstacles to trade, governments should seek common standards for polluting products and agree on the timing and general scope of regulations for particular products.
It is highly desirable to define in common, as rapidly as possible, procedures for checking conformity to product standards established for the purpose of environmental control. Procedures for checking conformity to standards, to be applied by an exporting country to the satisfaction of the importing country, should be mutually agreed.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT/WTO Art III/4 The products of the territory of any contracting party imported into the territory of any other contracting party shall be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to like products of national origin in respect of all laws, regulations and requirements affecting their internal sale, offering for sale, purchase, transportation, distribution or use. The provisions of this paragraph shall not prevent the application of differential internal transportation charges which are based exclusively on the economic operation of the means of transport and not on the nationality of the product.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT/WTO (Note to III/4) Any internal tax or other internal charge, or any law, regulation or requirement of the kind referred to in paragraph 1 which applies to an imported product and to the like domestic product and is collected or enforced in the case of the imported product at the time or point of importation, is nevertheless to be regarded as an internal tax or other internal charge, or a law, regulation or requirement of the kind referred to in paragraph 1, and is accordingly subject to the provisions of Article III.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Omogočeni so torej ukrepi, ki ne predstavljajo diskriminatornih ukrepov.
Kaj pa je z “nediskriminatornimi” ukrepi?
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT III/1 internal taxes and other internal charges , and laws, regulations and requirements affecting the internal sale, offering for sale, purchase, transportation, distribution or use of products, and internal quantitative regulations requiring the mixture, processing or use of products in specified amounts or proportions,
should not be applied to imported or domestic products so as to afford protection to domestic production
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT III/1 predvideva dokazno breme tožeče stranke – protekcionizem zaradi nediskriminatornih ukrepov bo težko dokazati!
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT XX Subject to the requirement that such measures are not applied in a manner which would constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries where the same conditions prevail, or a disguised restriction on international trade, nothing in this Agreement shall be construed to prevent the adoption or enforcement by any contracting party of measures:
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
(
b
) necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health; (
g
) relating to the conservation of exhaustible natural resources if such measures are made effective in conjunction with restrictions on domestic production or consumption;
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Restriktivna razlaga izjem Dokazno breme na stranki, ki uporabi izjemo
GATT - primeri
Thai Cigarettes
http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/gattpanels /thaicigarettes.pdf
Tuna/Dolphin
Herring and Salmon
http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/gattpanels /canadaherring.pdf
Beef Hormones
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
Kaj paneli upoštevajo pri presoji ukrepov, ki jih države uvajajo z “opravičilom” varstva zdravja?
1. ali je ukrep razumen in namenjen promociji legitimnih ciljev ali gre za prikrito diskriminacijo?
2. ali je ukrep utemeljen z znanstvenimi argumenti (scientific risk assessment)?
3. ali je ukrep sorazmeren z zasledovanim ciljem?
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
1. ali je ukrep razumen in namenjen promociji legitimnih ciljev ali gre za prikrito diskriminacijo?
Ustrezen test?
T.i. “sham test” Panel mora dejanje države (suverena!!!) okarakterizirati kot slaboverno politiko Gre za precejšen poseg v suverenost, predvsem pa za povsem subjektivno presojo Panel mora odločiti, kakšen je bil “resnični namen” države
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
2. ali je ukrep utemeljen z znanstvenimi
argumenti ( scientific risk assessment )?
Kljub
prima facie
objektivnosti tega testa gre pogosto za vrednostno odločanje Rezultati povsem odvisni od uporabljene metodologije Odločanje o nasprotujočih si znanstvenih argumentacijah Imajo člani panelov (pravniki, diplomati) znanja, ki jim omogočajo takšno neodvisno odločanje?
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
3. ali je ukrep sorazmeren z zasledovanim ciljem?
Proporcionalnost, Least Drastic Means test Težave zaradi potrebe po karakterizaciji in vrednostni oceni morebitnih alternativnih ukrepov, ki bi bili sorazmerni Lahko pride do aksiomatičnega, silogističnega odločanja Pogosto paneli ne upoštevajo omejitev, ki enostavno ne omogočajo uporabe alternativnih, manj restriktivnih ukrepov!
Vprašanja glede znanstvene narave ocenjevanja tveganj…
Del tega tudi Sporazum WTO o sanitarnih in fitosanitarnih standardih (
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures 1995
) Namen ?enoten?
vzpostaviti ?harmoniziran?
?učinkovit?
Sistem delovanja DČ na področju ukrepov sanitarne in fitosanitarne narave
SPS sporazum
Kaj so sanitarni in fitosanitarni ukrepi?
1. Sanitary or phytosanitary measure — Any measure applied: (a) to protect animal or plant life or health within the territory of the Member from risks arising from the entry, establishment or spread of pests, diseases, disease carrying organisms or disease-causing organisms; (b) to protect human or animal life or health within the territory of the Member from risks arising from additives, contaminants, toxins or disease-causing organisms in foods, beverages or feedstuffs; (c) to protect human life or health within the territory of the Member from risks arising from diseases carried by animals, plants or products thereof, or from the entry, establishment or spread of pests; or (d) to prevent or limit other damage within the territory of the Member from the entry, establishment or spread of pests. Sanitary or phytosanitary measures include all relevant laws, decrees, regulations, requirements and procedures including,
inter alia
and labelling requirements directly related to food safety. , end product criteria; processes and production methods; testing, inspection, certification and approval procedures; quarantine treatments including relevant requirements associated with the transport of animals or plants, or with the materials necessary for their survival during transport; provisions on relevant statistical methods, sampling procedures and methods of risk assessment; and packaging
SPS sporazum
Področje ocenjevanja/omejevanja tveganj (
risk assessment
) DČ samostojno odločajo o tveganjih in ukrepih za njihovo preprečevanje Razlika v percepcijah tveganj (politični, ekonomski, družbeni vplivi) Potencialna omejevanja mednarodne trgovine Različni sistemi, metode ocenjevanja, omejevanja tveganj
Risk assessment / Precautionary principle
Zato SPS Agreement Načelo nediskriminatornosti Dvotirni sistem standardov za ukrepe
SPS sporazum
Načelo nediskriminatornosti / sorazmernosti (2. člen SPS)
Members have the right to take sanitary and phytosanitary measures
necessary for the protection
this Agreement. of human, animal or plant life or health, provided that such measures are not inconsistent with the provisions of 2. Members shall ensure that any sanitary or phytosanitary measure is applied
only to the extent necessary to protect
paragraph 7 of Article 5.
human, animal or plant life or health, is based on scientific principles and is not maintained without sufficient scientific evidence, except as provided for in 3. Members shall ensure that their sanitary and phytosanitary measures
do not arbitrarily or unjustifiably discriminate
between Members where identical or similar conditions prevail, including between their own territory and that of other Members. Sanitary and phytosanitary measures shall not be applied in a manner which would constitute a disguised restriction on international trade.
SPS sporazum
SPS sporazum uvaja dvotirni sistem dovoljenih ukrepov
Harmonizacijski
standard /
Avtonomni
standard 3. člen SPS (Harmonizacijski standard) (1) [t]o harmonize sanitary and phytosanitary measures … Members shall
base
their sanitary or phytosanitary measures
on
international standards, guidelines or recommendations, where they exist; … (2) Sanitary or phytosanitary measures which
conform to
international standards, guidelines or recommendations shall be deemed to be necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health, and presumed to be consistent with the relevant provisions of this Agreement and of GATT 1994.
SPS sporazum
SPS sporazum uvaja dvotirni sistem dovoljenih ukrepov
Harmonizacijski
standard /
Avtonomni
standard 3. člen SPS (Avtonomni standard) 3. Members may introduce or maintain sanitary or phytosanitary measures which result in a higher level of sanitary or phytosanitary protection than would be achieved by measures based on the relevant international standards, guidelines or recommendations, if there is a scientific justification, or as a consequence of the level of sanitary or phytosanitary protection a Member determines to be appropriate in accordance with the relevant provisions of paragraphs 1 through 8 of Article 5.
SPS sporazum
Temeljna težava (kot ste lahko ugotovili…) Avtonomni standard SPS forsira harmonizacijo Možnost DČ, da intenzivno odstopajo od mednarodno dogovorjenih standardov, je omejena.
Beef Hormones
•
Article 3.1 imposes an obligation on all Members to base their sanitary measures on international standards except as otherwise provided for in the SPS Agreement, and in particular in Article 3.3 thereof. In this sense, Article 3.3 provides an exception to the general obligation contained in Article 3.1.
Izrazito “napeta” intepretacija! sledi tudi - sicer nepravilna – odločitev panela, da je dokazno breme zato na toženi stranki…
SPS sporazum
Dodatna težava kdaj so standardi, ki odstopajo od mednarodnih, dovoljeni (poleg nediskriminacije)
“…if there is a scientific justification…”
Ni sporazuma o metodi znanstvene utemeljenosti 2 temeljni metodi
Risk assessment
Precautionary principle
SPS sporazum
Risk assessment Klasična,
znanstvena
metoda Znanost kot “nevtralni arbiter” Ni vrednot pri odločanju Širši družbeni konsenz ni pomemben/potreben Širok manevrski prostor za potencialne kršitelje (multinacionalke…) Temeljni kriteriji:
Hazard identification
Dose-response evaluation
Human exposure evaluation
Risk characterization
SPS sporazum
Precautionary principle RISK ASSESSMENT + Upoštevanje družbenega konsenza Upoštevanje preferenc potencialno ogroženih Upoštevanje zgodovinskih, socialnih, političnih parametrov Ketelson: •
Those of us who support the Precautionary Principle do so in part because we perceive our democratic rights to a clean environment and health have been violated” “This technocratic process (risk assessment) purports to put the decisions into an objective framework but the process gives greater power to corporate interests and tends to violate individual and collective rights to health”
SPS sporazum
Pomanjkljivost protekcionizem… odprta vrata za Ameriški pogled: The Precautionary Principle is a nebulous doctrine developed by Europeans as a means to erect a trade barrier against any item that can be produced more efficiently in the United States.
Evropski odgovor: “We do not spend our days in Brussels – as some might think – in Machiavellian plotting to apply precaution to the detriment of US businesses ” (Margot Wallstrom: Head of European Union
Environmental Commission). NAZAJ