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1 Cognitivism مکتب شناخت گرایان Cognitive Theories Cognitivism is a study of how learning occurs from a change in mental state. 2 • رفتارگرا • Objective, systematic observations of people's behavior should be the focus of scientific inquiry, • شناخت گرا • focuses on an unobservable change in mental knowledge. شناخت گرا • • Some learning processes may be unique to human beings. 3 مکتب شناختی • learning cannot be described in terms of a change in behavior. • Individuals are actively involved in the learning process. • Learning involves the formation of menatal assocaitions that are not necessarily reflected in overt behavior changes. 4 مکتب شناختی • Knowledge is organized. • Learning = process of relating new information to previously learned innformation. Perception- fantasy- problem solvingthinking 5 مکتب شناختی Tolman • Learning can occur without reinforcement. • Intervening variables must be considered. • یادگیری در اثر شناخت روابط بین محرک هاست نه رابطه محرک و پاسخ 6 مکتب شناختی • Behavior is purposive. • Expectations affect behavior. • Learning results in an organized body of information. 7 مکتب شناختی • input & information • information is filterd by the individual and short-term memory begins processing. 8 مکتب شناختی • the learner makes a decision to "work" with a particular piece of information, continuing to process the information. • how the information is important?????? organized and stored for later retrieval. 9 مکتب شناختی • an instructor can produce learning by transferring information to the learner and helping them to organize it in such a way that they are able to recall it later. 10 نظریه یادگیری گشتالت 11 نظریه یادگیری گشتالت Marx Wertheimer - Wolfgang Kohler - Kurt Koffka • Perception is often different from reality. • The whole is more than the sum of its parts. • The organism structures and organizes experience. 12 نظریه یادگیری گشتالت • The organism in predisposed to organize experience in particular ways. • Problem solving involves restructuring and insight 13 • گشتالت= طرح – قالب -الگو -شکل – سازمان • افکار انسان از تصورات +اشارات کلی و معنی دار تشکیل شده نه اجزا که از طریق تداعی و همخوانی بهم ربط پیدا کرده اند. Good Gestalt=similarity+ regularity+stability 14 Insight Learning )Kohler( بکارگیری بینش در حل مساله • Solving problems by understanding – • insight learning, the "aha!" solutions to problems 15 Gestalt Theory: individuals use insight & their prior experiences to determine their responses to stimuli. 16 قوانین یادگیری گشتالت laws of Gestalt theory • قانون مشابهت :شباهت شکل و رنگ Similarity • قانون مجاورت :اشکال نزدیک به هم Proximity • قانون بستن :سطوح بسته و اشکال کامل Closure • قانون نیک پیوستگی :اشکال متقارن Good Continuation 17 مکتب شناختی و کاربردهای آموزشی • Cognitive processes influence learning. • As children grow, they become capable of increasingly more sophisticated thought. • People organize the things they learn. • New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with things they have already learned. • People control their own learning 18 • بر حل مساله تاکید شود • نقشه را به فراگیر ندهید تا شهرها را یاد بگیرد نقشه خالی دهید تا فراگیر انها را تکمیل کند و با نقشه اصلی مقایسه کند • انگیزه یادگیری بیشتر • فکر انتقادی تر بیشتر • فراموشی کمتر • انتقال یادگیری اسانتر • اعتماد به نفس بیشتر 19 کاربرد نظریه گشتالتی • • • • 20 قبل از تدریس باید اهداف اموزشی برای فراگیر قابل درک باشد ابتدا بخش های ساده و بعد بخش های مشکل تر ارائه شود قبل از اغاز موضوع باید کلیات مطالب به فراگیر گفته شود برای کسب بینش از وسیله موثر مثل ترسیم نمودار- چارت – پوستر – ازمایش علمی استفاده شود 21 How Do People Learn? Piaget's Development Theory Jean Piaget • mental events - logical reasoning processes and the structure of knowledge. • language, logical reasoning, moral judgements, conceptions of time, space, and number. 22 Simple reflexes-------------------- complex cognitive activities 23 Piaget • People are active processors of information. • Knowledge can be described in terms of structures that change with development. 24 Piaget • Cognitive development results from the interactionns that children have with their physical and social environments. • The process through which people interact with the environment remain constant. 25 Piaget • People are intrinsically motivated to try to make sense of the world around them. • Cognitive development occurs in distinct stages, 26 Piaget Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old)— • physical interaction with environment, • a child does not know that physical objects remain in existence even when out of sight (object permanance). 27 Piaget • Preoperational stage (ages 2-7)• -The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations. • برای یادگیری به موقعیتهای عینی نیاز دارد 28 Piaget Concrete operations (ages 7-11)• logical structures • Abstract problem solving • For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers, not just with objects. • از عملیات عینی برای حل مسائل انتزاعی استفاده میکند حل معادله ریاضی با استفاده از اعداد نه فقط اشیا • 29 Piaget • • • • 30 • Formal operations (beginning at ages 11—)15 • conceptual reasoning. میتوان به نوجوان موقعیت فرضی داد تا در مورد ان فکر کند باالترین مرحله تحول ذهنی امور انتزاعی درک میکند شبیه بزرگساالن و استدالل مفهومی کاربرد تئوری پیاژه در آموزش Curriculummust plan a developmentally appropriate 'curriculum that enhances their students logical and conceptual growth. برداشت کودک از مفاهیم /طرز فکر کودک متفاوت با بزرگسال است اموزش پیش از موقع مفاهیم ---- یادگیری طوطی وار می شود 31 کاربرد تئوری پیاژه در آموزش • • • 32 Instruction-• interactions with the surrounding environment--play in student learning. کودکان پیش دبستانی با اشیا و لوازم محسوس و عینی بهتر یاد میگیرند • the permanence of objects برنامه آموزشی باید با تجربه عینی و ملموس همراه باشد نه تنها مفاهیم کلی و غیر تجربی آموزش انفرادی بر آموزش جمعی و همگانی ارجح است Learning Styles سبک های یادگیری should not ask, "Is this person smart? should ask "How is this person smart? • Concrete and abstract perceivers— • Active and reflective processors— 33 سبک های یادگیری Concrete perceivers— doing, acting, sensing, and feeling. abstract perceivers through analysis, observation, and thinking. • Active processors— make sense of an experience by immediately using the new information Reflective processors ---make sense of an experience by reflecting on and thinking about it. 34 • Traditional schooling tends to favor abstract perceiving and reflective processing. • Other kinds of learning aren't rewarded and reflected in curriculum, instruction, and assessment nearly as much. 35 کاربرد سبک های یادگیری در آموزش • Curriculum• -Educators must place emphasis on intuition, feeling, sensing, and imagination, in addition to the traditional skills of analysis, reason, and sequential problem solving. 36 کاربرد سبک های یادگیری در آموزش • Instruction— • various combinations of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation. Instructors can introduce a wide variety of experiential elements into the classroom, such as sound, music, visuals, movement, experience, and even talking. 37 کاربرد سبک های یادگیری در آموزش • Assessment• -Teachers should employ a variety of assessment techniques, focusing on the development of "whole brain" capacity and each of the different learning styles. 38