Transcript Chapter 31: Societies at Crossroads The Ottoman Empire in Decline Height of Ottoman military expansion in late seventeenth century.

Chapter 31: Societies at Crossroads
1
The Ottoman Empire in Decline
Height of Ottoman military expansion in late seventeenth century
2
The Ottoman Empire in Decline
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At its height in the 1600s, the Ottoman Empire had 29
provinces and several tributary states.
Provinces Become More Independent: Semiindependent local warlords use mercenaries and slave
armies to support sultan in return for imperial favor.
Central Government Receives Less Revenue: Many
local administrators carry out massive corruption,
misusing tax revenues. Central government becomes less
effective.
Defeats in War: In the 1700s and 1800s, territorial
holdings are gradually diminished through many defeat
in wars.
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The Ottoman Empire in Decline
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The Austrians, Russians, and British, among others,
beat the Ottomans in many different wars largely due
to European advances in technology and strategy.
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Russo-Turkish Wars (1735-1739; 1768-1774; 1787-1792; 1806–
1812; 1828–1829; 1877–1878)
Austro-Turkish Wars (1716–1718; 1787–1791)
Crimean War (1853-1856): Conflict between Russian Empire
against the French, British, and Ottomans.
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The Ottoman Empire in Decline
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The elite Janissary
corps, the best
Ottoman soldiers,
become corrupt and
less fearsome
warriors. They
become more
interested in palace
intrigue than fighting
wars.
British painting of a Janissary in the early 19th century
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The Ottoman Empire in Decline
Portrait of Muhammad Ali in 1840
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Napoleon’s unsuccessful invasion
of Egypt (1798-1801) triggers
local revolt against
Mamluks/Ottomans under
Muhammad Ali (r. 1805-1848)
 Muhammad Ali fights two wars
against the Ottomans (18311833 and 1839-1841)
 Nominally subordinate to
Sultan, but threatened the
capture of Istanbul in 1839
British support Ottomans only to
avoid possible Russian expansion
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The Ottoman Empire in Decline
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Nationalist uprisings drive Ottomans out of
Balkans
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Greek War of Independence (1821-1832)
Serbia revolts from 1804-1817 and gains some autonomy
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Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878
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Kingdom of Romania gains full independence
Bulgaria gains full indepence
Serbia gains full independence
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Territorial Losses of the Ottoman
Empire, 1800-1923
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Ottoman Economy
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Imports of cheap manufactured goods place stress
on local artisans; urban riots result.
Export-dependent Ottoman economy increasingly
relies on foreign loans
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Exports: raw cotton, grains, tobacco, wool, hides
Slave-produced commodities from New World are
cheaper, undercutting products of the Ottoman empire
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Ottoman Economy
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By 1882 Ottomans unable to pay even interest on
loans, forced to accept foreign administration of
debts (took out their first foreign loans in 1854,
just as the Crimean War was starting).
Capitulations: agreements that exempted
Europeans from Ottoman law
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Extraterritoriality gives tax-free status to foreign
banks and businesses
Foreign merchants begin to dominate overseas
trade
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Early Reforms
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1800s: Attempts to reform taxation, increase
agricultural output, and reduce corruption
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Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) remodeled army on
European lines
Janissaries revolt in 1807 and kill the new troops, imprison
Selim III
Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839)
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Massacres and disbands Janissaries in 1826, and creates
fully modern army
Creates imperial postal service in 1834
Rebuilt Ottoman navy
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Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) Era,
1839-1876
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Abdülmecid I (r. 1839-1861),
promotes a new, western-oriented
reform program called
“Tanzimat.”
Drafted new law codes that
strengthened civil rights for
minorities to appease rebellious
nationalist groups (Albanian,
Bulgarian, Romanian, Serbian,
Armenian, etc.)
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Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) Era,
1839-1876
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Abdülmecid introduced paper bank notes (1840)
Proclaimed a national anthem and flag (1844)
Replaces turban with fez as official male headgear
Established first modern universities and academies
(1848)
Gets rid of higher taxes on non-Muslims (1856)
Undermined power of traditional religious elite
Tries to rein in corruption in government
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Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) Era,
1839-1876
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The reforms were fiercely resisted by the religious
conservative establishment and entrenched
bureaucracy
Also drew opposition from radical Young Ottomans,
secret group of intellectuals founded in 1865, who
were influenced by Enlightenment ideas and wanted a
constitutional monarchy
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The Young Ottoman Takeover of 1876
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Young Ottomans stage a
coup in 1876 and install
Abdül Hamid II as Sultan
(r. 1876-1909)
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Constitution adopted
Representative government:
Parliament with members of
Senate elected by the Sultan
and members of Chamber of
Deputies elected by the
people
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The Young Ottoman Takeover of 1876
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Abdul Hamid II suspends the constitution by
1878 under emergency conditions (war with
Russia)
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Takes back power through brutal repression
Imprisons and executes many radicals
Many reformers go into exile in Europe
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The Young Turks
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Ottoman Society for Union and Progress
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Founded by medical students in exile in Paris in 1889,
with many non-Turkish members; wanted to reinstitute
1876 constitution
Called for rapid, secular reforms
“Congress of Ottoman Opposition in Paris in 1902: Started
to be called “Young Turks” instead of “Young Ottomans”
Young Turks force Abdül Hamid II to restore parliament
in 1908, and then dethrone him in favor of Mehmed V
Rashid (r. 1909-1918).
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Young Turk Rule
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Replaced “Ottomanism”—legal encouragement
of many nations living together—with Turkish
nationalism
Attempted to establish Turkish hegemony over
far-flung empire
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Turkish made official language, despite large numbers
of Arabic and Slavic language speakers
Yet could not contain forces of decline
18
The Russian Empire Under Pressure
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Russia a massive, multi-cultural empire
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Only approximately half speak Russian and observe
Russian Orthodox Christianity
Romanov tsars rule in a highly autocratic fashion
Powerful class of nobles exempt from taxation
and military duty
Nobility benefit from an exploitative serfdom;
serfdom had declined in Western Europe by the
1400s, but persists in Russia
19
The Russian Empire, 1801-1914
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The Crimean War, 1853-1856
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Russians expand into Caucasus in
larger attempt to establish control
over weakening Ottoman Empire
Threatens to upset balance of
power; British and French
Empires intervene to help
Ottomans
Russia driven back from Crimea
in humiliating defeat
Demonstration of Russian
weakness in the face of western
technology and modern strategy
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Reform: Emancipation of the Serfs
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Serfdom source of rural instability and
peasant revolt in the wake of the Crimean
War loss
Tsar Alexander II emancipates serfs in
1861, without alleviating poverty, land
hunger
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Forced to pay for lands they had farmed for
generations
Limited attempts to reform administration,
small-scale representative government
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Network of elected district assemblies
called zemstvos
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Industrialization in Russia
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Witte System
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Count Sergei Witte (1849-1915), serves
as minister of finance, 1892-1903
Oversaw construction of Trans-Siberian railroad
(started in 1891; completed in 1916)
Oversaw State-Sponsored Industrialization
Peasants uprooted from rural lifestyle and pushed into
factories to work for low wages, long hours
Led to massive discontent
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Repression
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Intelligentsia class spreads radical ideas for
social change
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Socialists, anarchists
Terror tactics, assassinations
Attempt to connect with the mistrustful peasantry
in 1870s, who often denounce them
Many of the intelligentsia sent into Siberian exile
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Repression
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Tsarist authorities turn to censorship, secret police
Nationalist sentiment seething in Baltic provinces,
Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, and central Asia
Period of upheaval contributes to great literature
 Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821-1881)
 Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)
 Anton Chekhov (1860-1904)
 Ivan Turgenev (1818-1883)
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Radicalization
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Radical anarchist group, the People’s Will
movement (“Narodnaya Volya), assassinates Tsar
Alexander II in 1881
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Previous attempts on his life: one in 1866 and two in 1879,
and one in 1880; People’s Will tried to blow up his train and
set off a charge in the Winter Palace
Bullet-proof carriage protects emperor from first blast, but
gets out and a second bomb is thrown at him, killing him
Prompted widespread pogrom attacks on Jews
Assassination leads to repression under the grim Alexander
III (r. 1881-1894), who relied heavily on the Okhrana
(secret police) to crack down on radicals.
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Radicalization
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Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917): Weak and vacillating
tsar enters into war with Japan (1904-1905)
Humiliating defeat exposes government
weaknesses
Social discontent boils over in Revolution of
1905; revolt fails, but triggers massive discontent
Workers’ strikes force government to make
political concessions, like the creation of a
national representative body, the Duma
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Qing Empire: Chinese Restrictions
on European Trade
Since 1759,
European
commercial
presence limited
to port of
Guangzhou (the
British called it
Canton)
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Chinese Restrictions on European
Trade
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Foreign merchants forced to deal solely with a
small group of licensed Chinese firms called
cohongs who only accepted one currency of trade:
silver bullion
Not much Chinese demand for European goods
British East India Company heavily involved in
opium trade
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Opium grown in India, sold in China for silver, silver
used to buy other Chinese products
29
The Opium Trade
The Opium Plant
British East Indiaman at port
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The Opium Trade
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Portuguese first bring opium to China in 1600s
Practice of mixing it with tobacco begins in mid-1600s
1729: Emperor outlaws sale of opium, but the law is
poorly enforced
Practice of smoking plain opium evolves by late 1700s
British East India company’s expansion in India leads
in later 1700s leads to larger volume of opium sold into
China
Increasing trade and social ills evident by late 1830s
31
The Opium Trade
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Chinese move to enforce ban in
1830s under Chinese official, Lin
Zexu (1785-1850)
British agents engage in military
retaliation in the First Opium War
(1839-1842)
British naval forces easily defeat
Chinese with superior technology
Hong Kong ceded to British in
Treaty of Nanjing (1842) and five
ports are opened to British traders
32
The Opium Trade
Steam-driven warship Nemesis destroys Chinese junks in 1841
33
Unequal Treaties
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Second Opium War (1856-1860): British and
French attack Chinese since China resists opening
more ports and legalizing opium importation
China forced into a series of disadvantageous
treaties known as “Unequal Treaties”
Extraterritorial legal status granted to British
subjects
Later other European countries conclude similar
treaties
34
East Asia
in the
Nineteenth
Century
35
The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)
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Large-scale rebellions in later nineteenth century
reflect poverty, discontent of Chinese peasantry
Population rises 50% between 1800-1900, but
land under cultivation remains static, leading to
frequent famine
Nian rebellion (1851-1868), Muslim rebellion
(1855-1873), Tungan rebellion (1862-1878)
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The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)
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The Taiping rebellion was led
by Hong Xiuquan (18141864), a schoolteacher who
called for destruction of Qing
dynasty
Hong declared himself the
brother of Jesus Christ
By 1850, he had between
10,000 to 30,000 followers,
alarming the authorities
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Taiping Platform
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Abolition of private property
Creation of communal wealth
Prohibition of foot binding, concubines
Free public education, simplification of written
Chinese, mass literacy
Prohibition of sexual relations among followers
(including married couples)
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Yet leaders maintained harems
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Taiping Defeat
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Taipings captured Nanjing in 1858 and make it their
capital
Attack on Beijing with force of 1 million, but turned back
Imperial army unable to contain Taipings, so regional
armies created with Manchu soldiers and outfitted with
European weaponry
Hong commits suicide in 1864; Nanjing recaptured

100,000 Taipings massacred
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The Self-Strengthening Movement
(1860-1895)
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High point is in 1860s-1870s
Slogan “Chinese learning at the base, Western learning for
use”
Blend of Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial
technology
 Building of shipyards, railroads, academies
Ultimately changes to Chinese economy and society were
superficial
Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908) nominally supports
technological development of the movement, but is suspicious
of Western ideologies
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Empress Dowager Cixi
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Cixi (1835-1908) unofficially
rules China from 1861 to 1908;
two emperors are essentially her
puppets (her son, then nephew)
Supposedly diverted government
funds for her own aesthetic
purposes, according to rumors
Was in general xenophobic and
conservative; foremost concern
was protecting the dynasty
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Spheres of Influence
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Qing dynasty loses influence in southeast Asia,
losing tributary states to Europeans and Japanese
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Vietnam: Lost to France in 1886
Burma: Lost to Great Britain in 1885
Korea, Taiwan, Liaodong Peninsula: Lost to Japan as a
result of the Sino-Japanese War of 1895
China itself divided into spheres of influence by
European powers in 1895
42
Spheres of Influence
1898 French political
cartoon
Empress Dowager Cix
43
Hundred Days Reforms (1898)
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Kang Youwei (1858-1927) and Liang Qichao (1873-1929):
Two popular scholars and journalists who start a reform
movement.
Interpreted Confucianism to allow for Western-style
changes to system: wanted to make China a constitutional
monarchy
Favored rapid industrialization through capitalists means
Emperor Guangxu (r. 1875-1908) attempts to implement
reforms
Empress dowager Cixi nullifies reforms and imprisons the
emperor, her nephew
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The Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901)
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Cixi supports Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists
(“Boxers”), an anti-foreign and anti-Christian militia
1899 fought to rid China of “foreign devils”
Misled to believe European weapons would not harm
them, 140,000 Boxers besiege European embassies in
1900
Crushed by coalition of European forces: Russia, Britain,
France, U.S., Japan, Germany, Austro-Hungary & Italy
Brutal repression of Boxers by Western forces;
China forced to accept stationing of foreign troops on her
soil
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Death of the Dowager Empress
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Emperor Guangxu dies a mysterious, sudden death on
November 14, 1908 at age 33; later discovered to be arsenic
poisonng
Cixi dies one day later
She places two-year-old Puyi placed on the throne before
dying
Revolution in 1911: Main goal was to replace Manchu
government with a Han one. First president of new republic is
Dr. Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925)
Puyi abdicates in 1912; film The Last Emperor tells of his life.
He dies on 1967.
46
Transformation of Japan
Emperor Meiji
(r. 1867-1912)
47
Transformation of Japan
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Japanese society is in turmoil in early nineteenth
century
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Poor agricultural output, famines, high taxes
Daimyo and samurai classes decline, peasants starving
Tokugawa government attempts reforms, 1841-1843
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Cancelled daimyo and samurai debts
Abolished merchant guilds
Compelled peasants to return to cultivating rice
These reforms ultimately ineffective
48
Foreign Pressure
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Europeans and Americans attempt to establish relations in
1840s; country is closed
Japan only allowed Dutch presence in Nagasaki
U.S. in particular was looking for a Far East Pacific ports
for whalers and merchants
In 1853 Commodore Matthew Perry sails gunships into
Edo harbor (Tokyo) and forces Japanese to open port
Perry’s black-hulled steam warship makes an impression
Sparks conservative Japanese reaction against shogun,
rally around emperor in Kyoto
49
Foreign
Pressure
Images of Perry and
his ship
50
The Meiji Restoration (1868)
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Mutsuhito takes throne in 1867 as figurehead
Brief civil war between imperial and Tokugawa
forces in 1867-68; shogun’s forces are defeated
1868: With the shogun gone, Emperor Mutsuhito
(Meiji, 1852-1912) takes full power; changes
name of Edo to Tokyo
Goals of prosperity and strength: “rich country,
strong army”
Resolves to learn western technology
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51
Meiji Reforms
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Travelers Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901) and Ito
Hirobumi (1841-1909) travel to U.S., Europe
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Meiji government removes privileges for daimyo
and samurai
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Argue for adoption of western legal proceedings,
technology
Conscript army replaces samurai mercenaries
Samurai rebellion crushed by national army
Tax reform: payment in cash, not kind (grain)
©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
52
Constitutional Government
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1889 constitution promulgated
Conservative: only 5 % of male population
allowed to vote in 1890 election
Economic reforms to promote rapid
industrialization
Dramatic improvement in literacy rates
Government holdings sold to private investors:
zaibatsu financial cliques develop
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