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CHAPTER
3
National Income:
Where it Comes From
and Where it Goes
MACROECONOMICS
SIXTH EDITION
N. GREGORY MANKIW
PowerPoint® Slides by Ron Cronovich
© 2007 Worth Publishers, all rights reserved
The production function
 denoted Y = F(K, L)
 shows how much output (Y ) the economy can
produce from
 Factor of Production:
K units of capital and L units of labor
 reflects the economy’s level of technology
 exhibits constant returns to scale
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 1
Returns to scale: A review
Initially Y1 = F (K1 , L1 )
Scale all inputs by the same factor z:
K2 = zK1 and L2 = zL1
(e.g., if z = 1.25, then all inputs are increased by 25%)
What happens to output, Y2 = F (K2, L2 )?
 If constant returns to scale, Y2 = zY1
 If increasing returns to scale, Y2 > zY1
 If decreasing returns to scale, Y2 < zY1
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 2
Example 1
F (K , L) 
KL
F (zK, zL) 
(zK )(zL)

z 2KL

z 2 KL
 z KL
 z F (K , L)
CHAPTER 3
National Income
constant returns to
scale for any z > 0
slide 3
Example 2
F (K, L) 
K L
F (zK, zL) 

z K z L

z

CHAPTER 3
zK  zL

K L
z F (K , L)
National Income

decreasing
returns to scale
for any z > 1
slide 4
Example 3
F (K , L)  K 2  L2
F (zK , zL)  (zK )2  (zL)2
 z 2  K 2  L2 
2
 z F (K , L)
CHAPTER 3
National Income
increasing returns
to scale for any
z>1
slide 5
Now you try…
 Determine whether constant, decreasing, or
increasing returns to scale for each of these
production functions:
2
K
(a) F (K , L) 
L
(b) F (K , L)  K  L
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 6
Answer to part (a)
2
K
F (K , L) 
L
(zK )2
F (zK , zL) 
zL
z 2K 2

zL
K2
 z
L
 z F (K , L)
CHAPTER 3
National Income
constant returns to
scale for any z > 0
slide 7
Answer to part (b)
F (K , L)  K  L
F (zK , zL)  zK  zL
 z (K  L)
 z F (K , L)
CHAPTER 3
National Income
constant returns to
scale for any z > 0
slide 8
The distribution of national
income
 determined by factor prices,
the prices per unit that firms pay for the
factors of production
 wage = price of L
 rental rate = price of K
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 9
Notation
W
= nominal wage
R
= nominal rental rate
P
= price of output
W /P = real wage
(measured in units of output)
R /P = real rental rate
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 10
How factor prices are determined
 Supply of each factor is fixed.
 Assume markets are competitive:
each firm takes W, R, and P as given.
 Basic idea:
A firm hires each unit of labor
if the cost does not exceed the benefit.
 cost = real wage
 benefit = marginal product of labor
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 11
Marginal product of labor (MPL )
 definition:
The extra output the firm can produce
using an additional unit of labor
(holding other inputs fixed):
MPL = F (K, L +1) – F (K, L)=W/P
Since we assume the production function exhibits
Constant return to scale, we can assume it as
 1
F ( K , L)  AK L
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 12
MPL and the production function
Y
output
F (K , L)
1
MPL
MPL
As more labor is
added, MPL 
1
MPL
Slope of the production
function equals MPL
1
L
labor
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 13
Diminishing marginal returns
 As a factor input is increased,
its marginal product falls (other things equal).
 Intuition:
Suppose L while holding K fixed
 fewer machines per worker
 lower worker productivity
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 14
Check your understanding:
 Which of these production functions have
diminishing marginal returns to labor?
a) F (K , L)  2K  15L
b) F (K , L) 
KL
c) F (K , L)  2 K  15 L
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 15
MPL and the demand for labor
Units of
output
Each firm hires labor
up to the point where
MPL = W/P.
Real
wage
MPL,
Labor
demand
Units of labor, L
Quantity of labor
demanded
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 16
The equilibrium real wage
Units of
output
Labor
supply
equilibrium
real wage
L
CHAPTER 3
National Income
The real wage
adjusts to equate
labor demand
with supply.
MPL,
Labor
demand
Units of labor, L
slide 17
Determining the rental rate
We have just seen that MPL = W/P.
The same logic shows that MPK = R/P :
 diminishing returns to capital: MPK  as K 
 The MPK curve is the firm’s demand curve
for renting capital.
 Firms maximize profits by choosing K
such that MPK = R/P .
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 18
The equilibrium real rental rate
Units of
output
Supply of
capital
equilibrium
R/P
K
CHAPTER 3
National Income
The real rental rate
adjusts to equate
demand for capital
with supply.
MPK,
demand for
capital
Units of capital, K
slide 19
The Neoclassical Theory
of Distribution
 states that each factor input is paid its marginal
product
 is accepted by most economists
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 20
How income is distributed:
W
L
total labor income =
P
R
K
total capital income =
P
 MPL  L
 MPK  K
If production function has constant returns to
scale, then
Y  MPL  L  MPK  K
national
income
CHAPTER 3
labor
income
National Income
capital
income
slide 21
The ratio of labor income to total
income in the U.S.
1
Labor’s
share
of total 0.8
income
0.6
Labor’s share of income
is approximately constant over time.
(Hence, capital’s share is, too.)
0.4
0.2
0
1960
CHAPTER 3
1970
National Income
1980
1990
2000
slide 22
The Cobb-Douglas Production
Function
 The Cobb-Douglas production function has
constant factor shares:
 = capital’s share of total income:
capital income = MPK x K =  Y
labor income = MPL x L = (1 –  )Y
 The Cobb-Douglas production function is:
Y  AK  L1
where A represents the level of technology.
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 23
The Cobb-Douglas Production
Function
 Each factor’s marginal product is proportional to
its average product:
MPK   AK
 1 1
L

Y
K
(1   )Y
 
MPL  (1   ) AK L 
L
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 24
Demand for goods & services
Components of aggregate demand:
C = consumer demand for g & s
I = demand for investment goods
G = government demand for g & s
(closed economy: no NX )
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 25
Consumption, C
 def: Disposable income is total income minus
total taxes:
Y – T.
 Consumption function: C = C (Y – T )
Shows that (Y – T )  C
 def: Marginal propensity to consume (MPC)
is the increase in C caused by a one-unit
increase in disposable income.
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 26
The consumption function
C
C (Y –T )
MPC
1
The slope of the
consumption function
is the MPC.
Y–T
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 27
Investment, I
 The investment function is I = I (r ),
where r denotes the real interest rate,
the nominal interest rate corrected for inflation.
 The real interest rate is
 the cost of borrowing
 the opportunity cost of using one’s own
funds to finance investment spending.
So, r  I
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 28
The investment function
r
Spending on
investment goods
depends negatively on
the real interest rate.
I (r )
I
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 29
Government spending, G
 G = govt spending on goods and services.
 G excludes transfer payments
(e.g., social security benefits,
unemployment insurance benefits).
 Assume government spending and total taxes
are exogenous:
G G
CHAPTER 3
National Income
and
T T
slide 30
The market for goods & services
 Aggregate demand:
C (Y T )  I (r )  G
 Aggregate supply:
 Equilibrium:
Y  F (K , L)
Y = C (Y T )  I (r )  G
 The real interest rate adjusts
to equate demand with supply.
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 31
The loanable funds market
 A simple supply-demand model of the financial
system.
 One asset: “loanable funds”
 demand for funds: investment
 supply of funds: saving
 “price” of funds:
real interest rate
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 32
Loanable funds demand curve
r
The investment
curve is also the
demand curve for
loanable funds.
I (r )
I
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 33
Supply of funds: Saving
 The supply of loanable funds comes from saving:
 Households use their saving to make bank
deposits, purchase bonds and other assets.
These funds become available to firms to
borrow to finance investment spending.
 The government may also contribute to saving
if it does not spend all the tax revenue it
receives.
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 34
Types of saving
private saving = (Y – T ) – C
public saving
=
T – G
national saving, S
= private saving + public saving
= (Y –T ) – C +
=
CHAPTER 3
T–G
Y – C – G
National Income
slide 35
digression:
Budget surpluses and deficits
 If T > G, budget surplus = (T – G)
= public saving.
 If T < G, budget deficit = (G – T)
and public saving is negative.
 If T = G, “balanced budget,” public saving = 0.
 The U.S. government finances its deficit by
issuing Treasury bonds – i.e., borrowing.
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 36
U.S. Federal Government
Surplus/Deficit, 1940-2004
5%
0%
(% of GDP)
-5%
-10%
-15%
-20%
-25%
-30%
1940
CHAPTER 3
1950
1960
National Income
1970
1980
1990
2000
slide 37
U.S. Federal Government Debt,
1940-2004
Fact: In the early 1990s,
about 18 cents of every tax
dollar went to pay interest on
the debt.
(Today it’s about 9 cents.)
120%
(% of GDP)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1940
CHAPTER 3
1950
1960
National Income
1970
1980
1990
2000
slide 38
四、當前經濟面臨的挑戰
5.財政收支惡化,債台高築
(1)1991年度至1999年度間,中央政府債務餘額由2169億元增至1兆2149億元,
平均債務餘額年增1248億元。
(2)2000年度因凍省納編原省府債務8139億元,致中央政府債務餘額激增至2兆
3575億元。
(3)依據政府編列2004年度中央政府總預算案,截至2004年度止中央政府債務餘
額將達3兆4290億元,較2000年度擴增1兆715億元,四年來平均每年增加2678億
億元元,為前8年之2.2倍。。
34290
35000
32087
28975
債務餘額
30000
預算赤字
27046
23575
25000
20000
15000
10997
12585 12643 12149
9709
10000
6738
7767
4589
5000
1660 1562
0
-349
-5000
1989
-215
1990
CHAPTER 3
2169
1652
1991
3359
1992
2744
1993
1464
1994
1867
1995
National Income
1273
1996
29
1953
1997
-1070
1998
-466
1999
1839
2000
2399
2001
2506
2002
3636
2003
2688
2004
年度
slide 39
中國時報 2007.10.01
近10年 每人增加11萬負債
本報訊
選舉烽火連年燒遍全台,面對明年將改朝換代的超級選舉,朝野政黨殺紅了眼,為搶選票,無
所不用其極,由陳水扁總統以降,左手加碼提高各項福利津貼,右手釋放減稅利多。國家財政大失血,
近十年來債台高築,平均每人增加負債十一萬元,民調更顯示已有五三%的民眾擔心財政破產。
稅收雖超徵 債務卻有增無減
過去十年,台灣政局以前所未見的速度重組更迭,債務也如滾雪球般越滾越大。據財政部統計,
中央政府累計的未償債務總額由八七年的一.三七兆,至今年八月初已快速攀升到三.八七兆的新高;
如加上地方政府債務餘額,就達四兆四七七四億元。中央政府債務未償餘額佔GNP比例,由一三.
八五%銳增到三一.○四%,暴增逾一倍。即使這兩年政府稅收都有超徵,債務卻有增無減,引來國
際信評機構頻頻示警。
如果不計地方政府六千多億元的負債,單中央政府債務,每個人平均為政府背負的負債金額,
七十六年時只有四千多元,八十年破萬到一萬二千多元,八十六年接近六萬元,接著十年就「勢如破
竹」,一路提高到現在的近十七萬元。而此債務增加的速度,正與台灣政局進入政黨競爭白熱化、政
客爭相「搞肉桶」完全契合。
前財政部次長、中信證董事長陳沖直言,各級政府債務飛快成長的趨勢「蠻可怕的」,趨勢背
後領導人透露的心態更讓國家置於險地,「政府若對債務增加的速度缺乏警覺,以為還可以大肆揮霍
浪費的話,這種心態不改就很危險」。
與民國八十九年底,約二兆七千餘億元的水位相比,台灣政府債務大幅增加一兆七千餘億元。
國內財政日益惡化,政大財研所教授曾巨威直言,問題出在「國家財政收入與支出面都出了狀況」。
鈔票換選票 大慷國庫之慨
以收入面而言,曾巨威指出,在政治選舉效應下,政治人物慷國庫之慨,開出逾千億的減稅支
票,但近半世紀以來,立院僅在去年通過「最低稅負制」,為國庫每年增加約一六○億的微薄稅收;
再論支出面,隨社會結構轉型,社福支出倍數成長,加上政府花錢無效率,如蚊子館、蚊子機場等到
處林立,在在都讓國家財政雪上加霜。
伴隨民主化近程開展,國內幾乎年年有選舉,
slide 40
國家資產遭受偷竊浪費項目與因而損失或耗費的金額
(中國時報台灣希望專題系列之四─被偷竊的國家/工商時報 2007.10.02)
 核四貿然停建損失估計2393億至4000億元




實施油電價補貼損失1630億元
公營行庫轉銷呆帳與對問題企業紓困耗費8000億元
調降金融業營業稅支援金融機構打消呆帳耗費2200億元
為經營不良及問題金融機構善後組建金融重建基金耗費4000億元
 機場興建與整修動用415億元(二十五縣市建設了十八座機場,創下全球機
場密度最高的笑話)
 機場營運虧損106億元
 四十餘年來利用租稅優惠獎勵特定企業耗費一兆元左右
 監理不善給予上市櫃公司掏空機會不法所得高達947億元等
 蚊子館到處林立
slide 41
中國時報 2007.10.01
政客樂此不疲「蚊子館」蓋不完
本報訊
選舉機場、蚊子館,這個故事還未結束,而且仍在繼續發生中。因年年有選舉,大大小小的「
蚊子館」不停地產生,政客樂此不疲。
去年十月間,趕著在年底北高市長選舉前,經濟部及經建會緊急通過「高雄世界貿易中心暨國
際會議中心」可行性評估,及「高雄軟體科技園區加速發展計畫」兩項大計畫,前者要花政府三十億
元,後者則使政府短少租金八千萬元。
目前國內已有世貿展覽館及正在興建的南港展覽館,而外貿協會董事長許志仁一直爭取在桃園
新設國際級五千個攤位以上的大型展覽館,但究竟國內有無如此大的展覽需求,經濟部及行政院內部
多有討論,並無定案。但突然間,卻冒出了「高雄世界貿易中心暨國際會議中心」,落腳在高雄。
面對媒體追問,國貿局執行秘書鍾興國表示,這個案子由民間開發不具可行性,整體財務計畫
淨現值均為負數,且投資報酬率在一.五%以下,只能由政府興建,他也坦承,高雄市世貿中心及會
議中心「剛開始可能會成為蚊子館,」他接著又補充說,但政府會找有能力的廠商舉辦大型展覽,並
提供多功能用途,增加使用效益,例如結合演唱會、表演等,以保持彈性。鍾國興指出,到民國一一
一年,使用率就會達四○%。
一項投資三十億元,十多年後使用率才會到達四○%,擺明就是「蚊子館」,但經濟部得做,經
建會得快速通過,文官都清楚,也很無奈,一切都是為選舉。
今年,政府撒紅包的情況更嚴重。行政院在九月初一口氣通過,在民國一百年前,投入三○二億
元,要在中南部興建歌劇院、文化中心等設施,包括:台中大都會歌劇院、國家數位圖書館、台灣工
藝文化園區、故宮南院分院、台灣歷史博物館、衛武營藝術文化中心、高雄流行音樂中心、以及中部
及南部表演藝術發展計畫。
政府美其名是要將文化建設向中南部延伸,甚至延伸至離島、東部等地設美術館及文化創意園
區。在這些大型文化建設中,最大的一項是高雄的衛武營藝術文化中心,高達八十三億元,預估一○
一年可以完成。
《阿房宮賦》結語說:「秦人不暇自哀,而後人哀之;後人哀之而不鑑之,亦使後人復哀後人
也。」大概,就是這麼一回事吧!
slide 42
選舉機場養蚊子 世界奇觀
本報訊
台灣是選舉國家,為了選舉,造就了許多為選票而出生的「選舉機場」。廿
五縣市有十八座機場,密度世界第一。屏東縣境內,相距數十公里,就有兩座機
場,最是受關愛。
交通決策官員不諱言說,「很多機場的核定,都是在選舉前,機場營運也是
配合選舉。」例如,屏東機場正是在九一年立委選舉前一年底核定,花了十五億
元蓋航站;而花了五億元整建的恆春機場與花蓮機場新航站、台中清泉崗機場,
則都趕在九三年總統選舉前營運;真是趕得早不如趕得巧。
政院壓著同意 經建會難擋
「這兩個機場,當時的經建會都擋了許久,因為高鐵一通車,屏東機場完全
沒有機會,而恆春機場則有落山風,且航道在核三廠上方,這些當時都有紀錄。」
這位官員透露,「後來都是被行政院壓著同意。」
也因為政治掛帥、專業殿後、審查機制淪喪,類似的因選票而產生
的「養蚊子」機場不斷增加。根據統計,清泉崗機場的使用率還有
四成六,說起來並非殿後,花蓮機場更只有十九%;最誇張者當屬
恆春機場五%,屏東機場也不過七%。而今年高鐵通車,預估西部
走廊航空運量將減少一半,西部機場使用率將呈溜滑梯直線下降。
slide 43
中國時報 2007.10.01
政商一家親 藍綠均須檢驗
本報訊
在前有泰公、後有小馬下,政商一家親,
呆帳大戶不愁。十年來的紓困政策,就讓泛
公股行庫吞下近四千億元的呆帳,平均台灣
每人被迫要幫逾一千四百名呆帳大戶還債一
萬五千元。如果再加上另外轉銷的四千億元
呆帳,咱們為「帳多不愁」的借款人,還得
可多的呢!
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 44
中國時報 2007.10.01
舉債近五百億 苦撐低廉水價
本報訊
在政府「德政」下,台灣一噸自來水比一瓶礦泉水便宜!但,
這卻是犧牲應有的盈餘、靠舉債近五百億元撐出的「德政」。
為提高供水普及率,自來水公司每年均需投入鉅資辦理各項自
來水工程建設,由於水價長期接近成本,致無法累積自有資金投資
建設,致水公司長年以舉債度日,至九十五年底借款餘額為四七
四.七一億元。
台灣的水,有多便宜?經建會主委何美玥曾形容,一般家庭中
的浴缸裝滿水是○.二三公噸,裝滿四個缸是一公噸,才賣一○.七
元。「這比超商賣一瓶礦泉水都不如。」國內水價長期偏低,台灣
省平均一噸為一○.七元,台北市更便宜,一噸只有七元,國營會
官員表示,因水價長年未調,成本早就超過售價。
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 45
中國時報 2007.10.01
政府倒貼油價 形同劫貧濟富
本報訊
什麼是用油補貼?中油董事長潘文炎說,「用油少的補貼用油
多的,不開車的補貼開車的,貧者補貼富者,虧損由全民埋單。」
它是標準的劫貧濟富。
九三年中油賺了一六○億元,九四年稅前盈餘滑落至八十三億
元,而去年更大虧一八八億元。經濟部官員解釋,去年謝長廷擔任
行政院長時強勢介入油價,因而造成中油大虧一八八億元,但之前,
政府也是刻意壓低油價,「只是介入方式不像謝長廷那麼大張旗
鼓。」
潘文炎直言,中油資本額不過一三○一億元,若取消浮動油價
制,硬要中油苦撐,中油一年就得虧六百億元,「不到三年,中油
就倒店!」
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 46
中國時報 2007.10.01
核四輕率停建 四千億瞬間蒸發
本報訊
那天,陳總統與當時國民黨主席連戰會面後,當時的行政院長
張俊雄就宣布核四停建。外界說,這是打了連戰一巴掌,錯了!這
巴掌,是打在全民臉上,這一掌,價值連城;造成的損失,至少二
三九三億元,多則可能高達四千億元,也就是說,全台每戶家庭因
這項錯誤決策,被政府A走了至少三萬元。
政黨輪替、民進黨上台後,祭出「神主牌」,以四個月簡單的
幕僚作業、草率評估後,宣布停建核四。
但台灣真的能承受停建核四,其他核電廠提早除役的衝擊嗎?
答案是否定的。停建核四政策宣布一一○天後,執政者還是得向現
實環境低頭,重建核四。只是短短百餘天的政策轉向,已讓國庫嚴
重失血。
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 47
10年來 稅都白繳了中國時報 2007.10.01
去年台灣的個人綜合所得稅收三三四三億元,八十六年是二○六二
億元,十年平均值二四九八億元;因此,如果這一切未發生,你可
以七年多不繳稅!
至於每年預算在五千到八千億元之譜的公共建設投資,更是一
個隱形、難以估算的黑洞。各地林立的「選舉機場」、蚊子館、三
步一漁港的離島建設、過度華麗的法院與政府機關…,都說明了有
多少資源被浪費、被虛擲;而上至部會政務官、立委,下至鄉鎮地
方首長及公務員,牽扯的貪瀆司法案件之多,更讓人難以想像國庫
被偷竊的金額,更甭談計算了。
民進黨執政前曾批評國民黨,每年至少A走公共建設一成以上
的經費,算算是七百億元左右;民進黨執政七年了,貪瀆案與浪費
程度,就算未「青出於藍」,但至少是「前後輝映,不遑多讓」。
這筆錢,也是五千到七千億元以上。
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 48
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 49
到底政府債務有多少?
 財政部國庫署按我國公共債務法的債務界定統計,不包括自償性
債務、未滿1年短期債務,以及非營業基金債務在內,中央政府
債務未償餘額在94年度達3.68兆元,占GDP的比率為35%
 每位國人負債386000/2.4=16萬臺幣
 如果按歐盟的定義來計算,把政府對高鐵的擔保也算入負債,中
央政府的負債將達7兆多,占GDP的比率早超過70%,遠超過歐
盟的上限40%。
 那每位國人負債則約700000/2.4=30萬臺幣
 若把短期及地方政府等債務計入有人估約11兆
 那每位國人負債則約11000000/2.4=45萬臺幣
slide 50
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 51
目前政府如何償債?
 資金缺口: 中央政府財政狀況在九十年到九十二年,歲出減去
稅課收入及國營事業繳庫、規費收入、賠償等其他收入的短
絀,每年都高達三千億以上,九十三年也有兩千七百億元。
 吃老本: 九十一年用了五百八十二億、九十二年用四百廿九億
的歲計賸餘,共用了一千零十一億打消短絀金額。政黨輪替
前歲計賸餘有兩千八百億,現在已剩不到一半。
 賣祖產: 出售土地、官股及開發基金持有的股票,其中九十年
賣了兩千一百三十三億的官股,若加上開發基金的持股,當
年光賣股票就賣了兩千三百四十一億元(實現數)。土地方
面,九十三年賣了三百八十一億元。
slide 52
誰來買單?
 93年中央政府到期的債務連同公債法規定應還的債額共
有4,141億,這些當年該還的債務,中央政府都是「舉
新債來還」,以債養債,也就是一毛錢都沒還。
 每位國人負債386000/2.4=16萬臺幣
 以債養債:平均一年只償還566億元本金,但卻增加
2,000億元債務, 。
 債留子孫:目前政府平均每編列100元預算,就有15元用
來償還債務,且需65年才能還清。

CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 53
Loanable funds supply curve
r
S Y  C (Y T )  G
National saving
does not
depend on r,
so the supply
curve is vertical.
S, I
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 54
Loanable funds market
equilibrium
r
S Y  C (Y T )  G
Equilibrium real
interest rate
I (r )
Equilibrium level
of investment
CHAPTER 3
National Income
S, I
slide 55
The special role of r
r adjusts to equilibrate the goods market and the
loanable funds market simultaneously:
If L.F. market in equilibrium, then
Y–C–G =I
Add (C +G ) to both sides to get
Y = C + I + G (goods market eq’m)
Thus,
CHAPTER 3
Eq’m in L.F.
market
National Income

Eq’m in goods
market
slide 56
Mastering the loanable funds
model
Things that shift the saving curve
 public saving
 fiscal policy: changes in G or T
 private saving
 preferences
 tax laws that affect saving
– 401(k)
– IRA
– replace income tax with consumption tax
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 57
CASE STUDY:
The Reagan deficits
 Reagan policies during early 1980s:
 increases in defense spending: G > 0
 big tax cuts: T < 0
 Both policies reduce national saving:
S Y  C (Y T )  G
G   S
CHAPTER 3
National Income
T   C   S
slide 58
CASE STUDY:
The Reagan deficits
1. The increase in
the deficit
reduces saving…
2. …which causes
the real interest
rate to rise…
3. …which reduces
the level of
investment.
CHAPTER 3
National Income
r
S2
S1
r2
r1
I (r )
I2
I1
S, I
slide 59
Are the data consistent with these results?
variable
1970s
1980s
T–G
–2.2
–3.9
S
19.6
17.4
r
1.1
6.3
I
19.9
19.4
T–G, S, and I are expressed as a percent of GDP
All figures are averages over the decade shown.
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 60
An increase in investment demand
r
…raises the
interest rate.
r2
S
An increase
in desired
investment…
r1
But the equilibrium
level of investment
cannot increase
because the
supply of loanable
funds is fixed.
CHAPTER 3
National Income
I1
I2
S, I
slide 61
Saving and the interest rate
 Why might saving depend on r ?
 How would the results of an increase in
investment demand be different?
 Would r rise as much?
 Would the equilibrium value of I change?
CHAPTER 3
National Income
slide 62
An increase in investment demand
when saving depends on r
An increase in
investment demand
raises r,
which induces an
increase in the
quantity of saving,
which allows I
to increase.
r
S (r )
r2
r1
I(r)2
I(r)
I1 I2
CHAPTER 3
National Income
S, I
slide 63