Transcript Document 7482025

Western Civilization II
HIS-102
Unit 7 – Restoration to Revolution: 1815-1848
The Congress of Vienna
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Congress of Vienna (September 1814-June 1815)
The main participants included:
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Alexander I of Russia (1801–1825)
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Enlightened monarch and absolutist monarch
Succeeded his murdered father in 1801
Presented himself as the “liberator” of Europe
Europe feared an all-powerful Russia as it had feared an all-powerful
France
Prince von Metternich, Austrian prime minister
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The “architect of the peace”
Lifelong hatred of political change
Feared Alexander might provoke another revolution
His peace prevented a major European war until 1914
The Congress of Vienna
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Other participants:
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Talleyrand, French foreign minister
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Bishop and revolutionary
Escaped the Terror by exiling himself to the United States
Served under Napoleon then turned against him
Foreign minister to Louis XVIII
Viscount Castlereagh, British foreign secretary
Karl August von Hardenberg, chancellor of Prussia
Each side had its own goals and some shared ones:
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Metternich, Castlereagh, and Talleyrand wanted to keep the
balance of power in Europe
Alexander wanted the creation of a new Kingdom of Poland
Hardenberg wanted to expand the size of Prussia
Outcomes of the Congress
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The restoration of order and legitimate authority
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The prevention of French expansion
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Recognized Louis XVIII as legitimate sovereign of France
Restored Bourbon leaders in Spain and the two Sicilies
Surrounded France with powerful states
What to do with the HRE?
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Created the German Federation
The original 300+ states were now divided into 39 states plus
Prussia and Austria
The president of the Federation was the Austrian emperor
The kingdoms set up by Napoleon remained intact
Outcomes of the Congress
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Poland
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British compensations
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A nominally independent kingdom of Poland
The king of Russia was also the king of Poland
Received French territories in South Africa and South America
Prussia also received parts of Poland, Saxony, and Swedish
Pomerania
The Papal States were recreated and handed over to the
Pope
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Congress of Vienna
Concert of Europe
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The main post-Congress focus was securing the peace
and creating permanent stability throughout Europe
Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia form the Quadruple
Alliance
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In 1818, joined by France (the Quintuple Alliance)
Designed to keep the balance of power and to maintain the
ideals of conservativism
Called for cooperation in the suppression of all disturbances to
the peace
Alexander and the Holy Alliance
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Established a ruler’s legitimacy based on international treaties
and not divine right
Reaction to Restoration
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Carbonari (“Charcoal Burners”)
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Secret society organized in Naples during Napoleon’s reign
Vowed to oppose the government in Vienna
Spread through southern Europe and France in the 1820s
Aims
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Some called for a constitution in 1820
Others sang the praises of Bonaparte
Naples and the Piedmont
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Opposition turned to revolt
Restored monarchs abandoned their promises
Reaction to Restoration
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Metternich summoned Austrian, Prussian, and Russian
representatives
The Troppau Memorandum (1820)
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If a country’s government was overthrown by revolution, it was
no longer part of the European alliance
If this new government was seen as a threat to the rest of
Europe, it is the duty of the other countries to end that threat
It was an attempt by Metternich to keep the balance of power
in Europe
France and Britain refused to go along with it
Reaction to Restoration
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In Russia, instability came in the form of the Decembrists
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Death of Tsar Alexander I occurred in December 1825
Most came from noble families or were members of elite
regiments
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Believed that Russia needed reform
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Saw Russia as the liberator of Europe
Serfdom contradicted the promise of liberation
Called for the curbing of the tsar’s power
No political program
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Ranged from constitutional monarchs to Jacobin republicans
Wanted Alexander’s brother, Constantine, to assume the throne and
guarantee a constitution
Reaction to Restoration
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Nicholas I (1825–1855)
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Crushed the Decembrist revolt
Instituted reactionary policies against the liberals
Set up the political police known as the Third Section
They were allowed to arrest and deport anyone they thought
was suspicious or dangerous to the state of Russia
Signs of change in Russia
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The bureaucracy became more centralized and efficient
Less dependence on the nobility for political support
The codification of the legal system (1832)
Landowners reorganized their estates
Reaction to Restoration
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In the Balkans, there were local movements in Greece
and Serbia began to demand autonomy
Greek war for independence (1821–1827)
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European sympathy and European identity
Christians cast the rebellion as a war between Christianity and
Islam
Celebrating Greeks and demonizing Turks
At first, the European powers did not want to get involved in
the war
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Supporting the Greeks would be supporting revolutionaries
British, French, and Russian troops went in against the Turks in
1827
Reaction to Restoration
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The London Protocols (1829–1830)
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Serbia
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Established Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire
Europe sided with the Serbs against the Ottomans
Serbian semi-independence
An Orthodox Christian principality under Ottoman rule
Results
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European opportunism
Greece and Serbia did not break close ties with the Ottomans
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Ottoman Empire in 1830
Advent of the “Isms”
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Age of “Isms” (1815-1848)
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Rise of new new doctrines and movements
Many based in Enlightenment
Reflected changes brought about by the French Revolution and
the Industrial Revolution
Doctrines were modified to end in “ism”
Includes:
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Conservatism
Liberalism
Radicalism
Socialism
Feminism
Conservativism
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Conservativism
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Strongest in Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia
Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
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Reactionary movement to protect the old school institutions
Included absolute monarchy, aristocracy and the church
Reaction against Revolutionary ideals
Saw the ideals of the Revolution as being too radical
Strongly against the violent overthrow of government
Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821)
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Pushed for the restoration of a hereditary monarchy
Believed that only a monarch who had absolute control could
bring about “order in society”
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Joseph de Maistre
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(1753-1821)
Classical Liberalism
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Liberalism
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Came from the middle and professional classes
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Term first used in Spain by anti-Bonapartists
Later adopted by French anti-monarchists after 1814
In Britain, ideas were adopted by the Whig party
They believed in self-government and wanted representative
governments
They also promoted laissez-faire styled economics
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
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On Liberty (1859) pushed the concept of moral and economic
freedoms from the state
His ideas include freedom of speech, freedom of opinion,
freedom in morality, and freedom of assembly
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John Stuart Mill
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(1806-1873)
Radicalism
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Radicalism
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They wanted to redo all of government
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Had its roots in Great Britain with the Philosophical Radicals
Shared many of the same ideas of the Jacobins
The word “radical” comes from the Latin word “root”
This included granting the right to vote and participation in
government to all free men
Many wanted the abolition of the monarchy as well
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This lasted until the latter part of the 19th century when the
popularity of Queen Victoria became almost universal
Republicanism
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Republicanism
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Many of its followers came from the intelligentsia
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Form of radicalism found on the continent
Wanted to reconstruct the ideals of the Republic without the
Reign of Terror
Did include working-class leaders and veterans of the French
Revolution
They embraced the ideas of the radicals
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Wanted universal male suffrage
Were opposed to the church and the monarchy
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Robert Owen
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(1771-1858)
Socialism
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Early Socialists (pre-1848)
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Believed that the economic system was aimless and unjust
Economic power should be in the hands of the workers and
not the owners
Included communal ownership of industry, end of laissez-faire
economics, and higher wages
Wanted a more equal and fair distribution of wealth
throughout society
Set the stage for post-1848 thinkers
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Including Frederick Engels and Karl Marx
Socialism
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Robert Owen (1771-1858)
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British businessman who set up a cooperative in New Lanark
Provided better working conditions than the local mill
Also set up a school and a company store that sold goods to
the workers at just above wholesale
Form of paternalistic capitalism
Investors were unhappy as they were not getting large profits
Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)
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Believed industrial leaders should be put in positions of
authority
The church should be replaced with science
Population should be educated so it could evolve
Socialism
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Karl Marx (1818–1883) and socialism
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Influenced by Hegel’s philosophy
Studied philosophy but became a journalist
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Partnership with Friedrich Engels (1820–1895)
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The Rheinische Zeitung (1842–1843)
Exiled to Paris, then Brussels, then London
Experience in the Manchester textile factories
The Condition of the Working Classes in England (1844)
In 1847, Marx and Engels joined the League of the Just (later
renamed the Communist League)
Socialism
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The Communist Manifesto (1848)
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History and conflict
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Master and slave
Lord and serf
Bourgeois and proletariat
Capitalism would “dig its own grave”
With the collapse of capitalism, the workers would seize the
state
Communism
Dialectical materialism
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Mary Wollstonecraft
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(1759-1797)
Feminism
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Feminism
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Shared similar ideas with the liberals and radicals
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Emerged in the 19th century
Term “feminism” did not appear until the 1830s
Believed in laws to mankind
Main concern was to expand the rights of women
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Both in home and in the public
Wanted more equality in private life (e.g., not losing property
when married)
In public, wanted the right to vote and receive the same civil
rights as men
Feminism
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Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
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Feminist during the Enlightenment
Vindication on the Rights of Women (1792)
This stated that women had the same innate capacity for
reason and self-government as men
Relations between the sexes ought to be based on equality
Saint Simonian Movement
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Mainly in France
Believed men and women were different
Called for women to be well-educated to raise intelligent and
competent children
Pushed for the creation of all-girl schools and the allowance of
women into higher education
Feminism
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Feminism in England
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Appeal on Behalf of… Women… (1825)
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Main groups were the Philosophical Radicals and the socialists
Written by Anne Wheeler and William Thompson
Criticized marriage as being oppressive to women
Advocated a "partnership between equals" to bring happiness
into marriage and in society
The Subjection of Women (1869)
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Written by Harriet Taylor and John Stuart Mill
Women were inherently equal to men and thus deserving to
the same rights as men
Society itself would benefit if women were allowed to
participate fully in public life
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Harriet Taylor
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(1807-1858)
Nationalism
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Nation, from the Latin nasci (to be born)
The French Revolution defined “nation” to mean the
people, or the sovereign people
Celebrating a new political community, not a territory or
ethnicity
Nationalism in the early nineteenth century
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Nation symbolized legal equality, constitutional government,
and an end to feudal privilege
Nationalism as a threat to the local power of aristocratic elites
Nationalism
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Nationalism was strongest in disorganized and divided
countries
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Was pushed by the intelligentsia
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Played on Herder’s idea of Volksgeist
Started as cultural nationalism but eventually turned to
politics
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Included Italy, Germany, Poland, and Austria
Wanted the creation of either a separate nation or a unified
one
Early nationalist movements met in secret
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They called for the overthrow of government
Led to the creation of many secret societies, especially in Italy
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Liberty Leading the People
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July Revolution
July Revolution
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Charles X (1824–1830)
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Wanted to reverse the legacies of the Revolution and
Napoleon
Restored the Catholic Church to its traditional place
Provoked widespread discontent
July Ordinances (July 1830)
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It dissolved the Chamber of Deputies and called for new
elections
The bourgeoisie were prohibited from running for office
Created a new Council of State with many ultra-royalists as
ministers
It suspended freedom of the press
July Revolution
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July Revolution (July 27-29, 1830)
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Riots broke out in the city of Paris in response to the
Ordinances
Barricades were set up around the city
A new provisional government was set up
Abdication of Charles (August 2, 1830)
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Charles did not wait around to be captured
He abdicated in favor of his 10-year-old grandson, Henri
Then fled to England
July Revolution
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Louis Philippe (1830–1848)
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He was the Duke d’Orléans and was a Jacobin during the
Revolution
Was crowned on August 9, 1830 as “King of the French” rather
than “King of France”
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Doubled the number of eligible voters
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Promoted as a constitutional monarch
The “July Monarchy”
Voting remained a privilege
Major winners from this revolution: the propertied
classes
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King Louis-Philippe
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(1830-1848)
Other 1830 Revolutions
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Belgian Revolution
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Had been merged with the United Provinces of the
Netherlands
News of the July Revolution catalyzed Belgian opposition
Brussels rebelled and the great powers guaranteed Belgian
autonomy
Poland Revolution
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Not an independent state—under Russian governance
Had its own parliament, a constitution, and guarantees of basic
liberties which were ignored by Constantine
Moved toward revolt in 1830
By 1831, Russian forces retook Warsaw
Poland placed under Russian military rule
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George IV of Britain
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Prince Regent (1811-1820)
King (1820-1830)
Reform in Great Britain
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Post 1815 Britain faced agricultural depression, low wages,
unemployment, and bad harvests
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This led to social unrest
Peterloo Massacre (August 16, 1819)
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Crowd of 60,000 protested against the high grain prices at St.
Peter’s Field in Manchester
Demanded parliamentary reform as well
Military was called in to put down the protest
A panic broke out and troops fired on the people
11 people were killed with over 400 wounded
Reform in Great Britain
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Parliament passed the Six Acts (1819)
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After the July Revolution, there were key Tory reforms
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Outlawed “seditious and blasphemous” literature
Increased stamp tax
Restricted the right of public meeting
Some toleration for Catholics and Dissenters
Refused to reform political representation in the House of
Commons
There were also some liberal reforms
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Whigs, industrial middle classes, and radical artisans demand
reform
The desire to enfranchise responsible citizens
Reform in Great Britain
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Reform Bill of 1832
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Eliminated “rotten” boroughs
Reallocated 143 parliamentary seats from the rural south to
the industrial north
Expanded the franchise
The political strength of landed aristocratic interests remained
The repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)
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Protected British landlords from foreign competition
Kept the price of bread artificially high
The Anti–Corn Law League
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Held large meetings throughout northern England
Lobbied members in Parliament
Persuaded Prime Minister Peel to repeal the Corn Laws
The Chartist Movement
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Grew in response to the Reform Act of 1832
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Included working class and radicals who wanted greater
enfranchisement
The Six Points of the People’s Charter
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Universal white male suffrage
The secret ballot
Abolition of property qualification for membership in the
Commons
Annual parliamentary elections
Payment of salaries to members of the Commons
Equal electoral districts
The Chartist Movement
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With deteriorating economic conditions, Chartism spread
in the 1840s
Chartists disagreed about tactics and goals
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William Lovett
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Feargus O’Connor
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Self-improvement
Education of artisans was the answer
Appealed to the impoverished and desperate class of workers
Attacked industrialization
Bronterre O’Brien
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Openly admired Robespierre
The Chartist Movement
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Chartists presented petitions to Parliament in 1839 and
1842
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Both rejected
In April 1848, Chartists planned a major demonstration
and show of force in London
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25,000 workers marched to Parliament with a petition of 6
million signatures demanding the Six Points
However, many of the signatures were forgeries
This discredited the movement
Many of the supporters turned to other radical movements
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Protest of 1848
“Hungry Forties”
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Europe suffered economically during the 1840s
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Industrial economic downturn late 1830s
Led to a slowdown in industry and high unemployment
Bad harvests throughout Europe in 1839-1842
Potato blight high northern Europe hard in 1846 (esp. Ireland
and Germany)
By 1847, food prices doubled
Bread and potato riots broke out throughout Europe
People lost faith in their governments
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Governments sent in military to suppress the riots
Made them look more authoritarian and incompetent
Revolutions of 1848
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Near universal uprisings
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Goals of the revolts
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Occurred throughout Europe
Timing was nearly simultaneous
Only Russia, the Netherlands, and Great Britain avoided
upheaval
Constitutional governments
Independence and unification
End to the remnants of serfdom and manorial systems
Revolutions of this period were short lived
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Brought to an end through military means
Start a new period of reactionism
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Republique Française
French Revolution of 1848
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July Monarchy remained separate from changing French
society
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Still no true representation for the bourgeoisie class
Only elite enjoyed privileges
Radicals called for universal male suffrage and a republic
Liberals wanted greater enfranchisement with a constitutional
monarchy
Louis-Philippe did not support any changes
French eyed the changes taking place in Britain
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Called for greater enfranchisement
Also demanded better wages and “right to work”
French Revolution of 1848
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Problems for France
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Prime Minister Guizot refused their calls for reform
Reformers organized a banquet for February 22, 1848
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Bad harvests in 1846
Economic depression in 1847
Peasant rebellions throughout 1846-7
Day before, government banned the meeting
February Revolution (February 22-24, 1848)
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Fighting broke out between Parisians and local guards
National Guard opened fire on the crowd, killing 20 people
City broke into riots
On February 24, Louis-Philippe fled to England
French Revolution of 1848
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Second Republic
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Provisional government was set up
Made up of seven political republicans and three social
republicans
National Workshops
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Louis Blanc, social republican, called for the creation of
National Workshops to help unemployed
A program of public works in and around Paris
Planned to support twelve thousand workers
By June 1848, unemployment reached 65%
Workers wanted to join the Workshop which could not handle
the numbers
Increased from 66,000 participants in April to 120,000
French Revolution of 1848
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Popular politics
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Constitutional Assembly
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Provisional government lifted restrictions on freedom of
speech and political activity
Women’s clubs and newspapers appeared
Elected in April 1848 by universal male suffrage
Worked on a new constitution
Temporary executive board was more moderate
Less sympathetic towards the needs of the worker
Not everyone supported the revolution
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Conservativism popular in the countryside
Rural farmers resented higher taxes to “pay” the unemployed
French Revolution of 1848
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Some felt it was not enough
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Wanted greater changes especially in the workplace
Still suffered from long days at low pay
Workers attacked the Assembly in May calling for its
dissolution
Assembly wanted an end of socialist influences
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Decided to bring an end to the Workshops
They were considered a financial drain
Told unemployed to join army or transfer to provincial
workshops
In May, closed the Workshops to future enrollment
On June 21, the government ended the program
French Revolution of 1848
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June Days (June 23–26, 1848)
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Over 20,000 workers took up arms
Parisian workers barricade the streets, creating a maze effect
Put down by National Guard under General Cavaignac
In the end, over 3,000 killed and 7,000 wounded
Over 11,000 were arrested and deported to colonies
Reaction
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Many were fearful of a full-blown revolution or class war
One Frenchwoman wrote that society was “a prey to a feeling
of terror incomparable to anything since the invasion of Rome
by the barbarians”
Workers moved more towards socialism
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Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte
Rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
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Constituent Assembly created the elected position of
president
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Four presidential candidates:
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Designed to act as strong executive power
Elections were to be held in December 1848
Alphonse de Lamartine – Republican
General Cavaignac – Republican
Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin - Socialist
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
Bonaparte won by a landslide
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Won with 5,400,000 votes (74% of total)
Rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
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Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808-1873)
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Des Idées napoléoniennes (Napoleonic Ideas)
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Nephew of Napoleon
Spent most of his life in exile
Initiated a Bonapartist coup at Strasbourg in 1836
Attempted a coup in Boulogne in 1840 which led to his arrest
In 1846, he escaped to England
Set down his political program
Called for a strong centralized state but also social reform
Focus was on bringing glory and peace
L'Extinction du paupérisme (Extinction of Poverty)
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Pushed for greater social reforms
Rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
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Rise of the Napoleonic Legend
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New Legislative Assembly met in May 1849
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In 1836, the Arch de Triumph was completed
In 1840, Napoleon was returned to France for burial
Louis Napoleon was associated with the greatness of the
Napoleonic era
2/3 were royalists: Legitimists (favoring the line of Charles X)
and Orléanists (favoring the line of Louis-Philippe)
Rest were either Socialists or political Republicans
In June, an insurrection occurred
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Failed to gain a following but led to reaction
33 Socialists were removed from the Assembly
All public meetings were banned
Rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
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In 1850, the Assembly terminated universal male suffrage
Role as president
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At first, supported the more conservative actions of the
Assembly
Put all the schools under control of the Catholic Church
Lay teachers were associated with republicanism and socialism
Needed the support of the radicals as well
Did this by supported the restoration of universal male
suffrage in 1851
Promoted the idea that wealthy were trying to control the
government
“Counteracted” this by putting his own men in high positions
Rise of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
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Coup d’Etat (December 2, 1851)
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Election of December 20, 1851
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Held on the anniversary of Napoleon’s victory at Austerlitz
Posted placards all over Paris stating the Assembly was
disbanded
Members who showed up were dispersed or arrested
Was some fighting throughout the country
Louis Napoleon was elected president for a ten year term
Official count was 7.4 million to 646,000
Napoleon III
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In 1852, he declared himself Emperor of the French
Impact of the 1848 French Revolution
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Significance of the 1848 Revolution in France
Its dynamics would be repeated elsewhere
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The pivotal role of the middle classes
Many saw the June Days as naked class struggle
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Created a domino effect throughout Europe
Shattered many liberal aspirations
Led to an anti-Republican reactionary movement
Middle-class and working-class politics were more sharply
differentiated
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Working class turned more radical
Middle class turned more conservative
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Europe in 1848