Transcript Resistance and Protests Apartheid is Challenged

Resistance and Protests
Apartheid is Challenged
On your Left Side:
• If you were a black non-citizen in
South Africa, how would you
resist and protest against
apartheid? Explain.
• Or would you not resist and just
accept and endure? Explain.
African National Congress
Political Challenges
• 1950s–1960s, many former European colonies ruled by dictators
• Some nations fell into civil war
• 1990s brought renewed hope with the return of democracy; end of the
apartheid system in South Africa
Protesting Apartheid
• Early 1900s, African National
Congress formed in South Africa
• ANC petitioned government, held
peaceful protests against apartheid
• 1940s, younger, radical members
joined, including Nelson Mandela
Change of Philosophy
• 1952, Mandela organized
campaign urging blacks in South
Africa to break apartheid laws
• 1960, changed from peaceful
philosophy after police killed
demonstrators in Sharpeville
The Sharpeville Massacre was a turning point in anti-apartheid movement.
http://www.watchknowlearn.org/Video.aspx?VideoID=32205&CategoryID=835
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Early resistance: 1912-1948
• 1912 African National
Congress founded
(original name: South
African Native
National Congress)
• Legal protests led by
African elites
Delegation from the South
African Native National
Congress that went to
England in 1914 to convey the
objections of the African people
to the 1913 Land Act
The ANC
• They advocated open resistance in the form
of strikes, acts of public disobedience, and
protest marches
• They adopted a Freedom charter, which
had a vision of non-racial democratic state
Role of Nelson Mandela
Nelson Mandelactivism
•
Joined African National Congress in 1944
• Formed Youth League with Oliver Tambo
– Secretary of ANCYL in 1947
• National Party won election of 1948
– New ANC president approved by
ANCYL
• President of ANCYL in 1951
• Banned from ANC in 1952
– Prohibited from attending meetings
or holding an office
– Confined to Johannesburg area
• ANC operated underground
The Treason Trial
• 156 nationalists arrested
December 5th, 1956
– Included Mandela and Albert
Luthuli, President of ANC
– Leaders of Congress Alliance
• Combination of five major
anti-apartheid
organizations
• Charged with high treason
– Punishable by death
• Acquitted in March of 1961
Human Rights – Nelson Mandela
• Protest was outlawed. Anyone caught organising a demonstration,
reading banned newspapers or speaking against the Apartheid system
was in danger of being detained without trial, tortured, imprisoned,
even sometimes murdered.
• However, Mandela’s group, the African National Congress committed
itself to using non-violent means to protest against this system
• That is, until the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960.
The Pan Africanist Congress
• Formed by more radical members of ANC
– Rivalry between ANC and PAC
• 69 demonstrators killed at Sharpeville on March 21, 1960
• Both groups formed military wings in 1961
• Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”)
– Mandela appointed first commander of MK
• PAC’s Poqo and MK prepare sabotage
Travel and Arrest
• Mandela left country in secret in 1962
• Attended Conference of Pan-African Freedom Movement of East
and Central Africa
– Conference of African nationalist leaders in Addis Ababa
– Provided with Ethiopian passport by Haile Selassie
• Traveled to Algeria for military training
– Guerilla warfare
• Next to London to visit Tambo
– Arrested upon return
The Rivonia Trial
• Charged for leaving country
– Sentenced to five years in prison
• MK HQ at Lilieslief raided on
July 11th, 1963
– Arrested leaders charged with
221 counts of sabotage
• Mandela delivered four hour
statement
– “I am Prepared to Die”
• Sentenced to life imprisonment plus
five years
On your Left Side: What does
Mandela mean by this speech?
“ During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to
this struggle of the African people. I have fought
against white domination, and I have fought
against black domination. I have cherished the
ideal of a democratic and free society in which all
persons live together in harmony and with equal
opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for
and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which
I am prepared to die.”
MK: Resistance Becomes Violent
Opposition to Apartheid
African National Congress
Nonviolence Failed
• Founded in 1921 to fight for
equal rights; the ANC’s most
vocal leader Nelson Mandela
• ANC disbanded; worldwide
attention and condemnation
of government
• 1950s ANC launched program
of nonviolent protest; annoyed
government arrested and
imprisoned ANC leaders
• Mandela and other leaders
grew convinced that violent
protests were necessary
• 1960 nonviolent protest
against apartheid ended with
the Sharpeville Massacre;
police firing into crowd killed
70 people
• Mandela formed Umkhonto
we Sizwe (“Spear of the
Nation”) underground militant
branch of ANC
• Dedicated to sabotage
violence
in this
country
Nelson MandelaAs
and
the ANC
protested
was inevitable,
peacefully at first.
However,itinwould
1960bewhen
wrong
and
unrealistic
for
What
do
you
think?
police opened fire on a peaceful protest in
African leaders to continue
Sharpeville, killing
69
black
Africans
and
preaching peace and
Is it sometimes
necessary
to
use
wounding
186, Nelson
Mandela
realised
nonviolence
at a time
when
that
non-violent
protests
would
not
violence
tothe
achieve
something
government
met
ourend
the system of apartheid.
peaceful
demands
with
force.
good?
Most of the peaceful protestors had been
shot in the back.
Nelson Mandela on the New
Militant Approach
• As violence in this country was
inevitable, it would be wrong and
unrealistic for African leaders to
continue preaching peace and
nonviolence at a time when the
government met our peaceful demands
with force.
Resistance Underground
• The ANC decided to take up armed resistance to
the government
• They still had peaceful protests, but also took on
terrorist tactics, such as intimidation, bombing,
murder and sabotage
• The Prime Minister declared a state of emergency
and forces could detain people without a trial.
• Over 18,000 demonstrators were arrested,
including many leaders of the ANC and PAC
• Together with ANC leader Nelson Mandela, they
were charged with treason in 1964 and sentenced
to life imprisonment.
Spear of the Nation
• A militant wing of the ANC
• Its leaders included Nelson Mandela, Walter
Sisulu, & Govan Mbeki.
• All were arrested for sabotage against the
government, put on trial, & given lifetime
imprisonment
MK attacks
• 1960s MK relatively quiet
– Problems: no internal support
structure
• Dramatic increase in actions in late ’70s
and ’80s
– Reasons: new regional bases, new
internal support structures
• Main repertoires: from sabotage to
bombings
– 190 acts of sabotage between October
1961 and July 1963.
– 1976-1982: 150 attacks
– 1980s- 100s of bombings
• 1983- MK bombs air force
headquarters.
• 19 people killed and more than
200 injured.
MK Targets:
•
“"(e) Selection of targets to be tackled
in initial phase of guerrilla operations
with a view to causing maximum
damage to the enemy as well as
preventing quick deployment of
reinforcements. In its study the
Committee should bear in mind the
following main targets:
–
–
–
–
Strategic road, railways and other
communications.
power stations
police stations, camps and military
forces
irredeemable Government
stooges."
(1969)
• Mandela went on the run after the ANC was banned. He was arrested in 1962,
after secretly returning to South Africa, and was imprisoned for five years for
organizing strikes.
• In 1963, Mandela was linked to a sabotage campaign in Rivonia near
Johannesburg. He was sentenced for life.
• 1973, Mandela was offered a shorter sentence if he would support the bantustan
program – he refused!
• In 1974, South Africa was banned from the United Nations General Assembly.
Nelson Mandela
 Nelson Mandela
peacefully fought to
end apartheid. He
served 27 years in
prison for such
“treason.”
 Thousands of other
South African nonwhites were
imprisoned and
executed for their
resistance against
apartheid.
The ANC and Nelson Mandela were listed
as terrorists by the US government until
2008. In many countries around the
world, people fighting for justice and
equality are considered to be terrorists.
What do you think this famous saying
means?
One man’s terrorist is another
man’s freedom fighter.
On your Left Side: What
does Mandela mean?
“I was made by the law, a criminal, not
because of what I had done, but because
of what I stood for, because of what I
thought, because of my conscious. Can it
be any wonder to anybody that such
conditions make a man an outlaw of
society?” Nelson Mandela
Nelson Mandela in Prison
• Would you be
willing to
spend 27
years in jail
for a cause?
• Why or why
not?
Nelson Mandela spent 27 years in solitary confinement in this cell.
Human Rights – Nelson Mandela
• “During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to the struggle of the African
people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought
against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and
free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal
opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if
needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”
• Nelson Mandela’s speech from the dock, Pretoria Courthouse, 1964
Protests
The shanty towns became centers
for black groups who resisted the
white government.
Thousands resisted apartheid by
refusing to work, refusing to buy
white products, going into “white
only” areas, and marching in
nonviolent demonstrations.
Sharpeville Protest
The Protest of March 21,1960: Sharpeville
• Black Protestors
• Protested against pass laws
• Wanted possession of passbooks unrequired
• Passbooks are booklets that contain your ID
• Were discriminated by race
• Treated like second class citizens
1960: Sharpeville
Massacre
• March 21 -- At least 180 black
Africans were injured and 69
killed when South African police
opened fire on approximately
300 demonstrators, who were
protesting against apartheid pass
laws, at the township of
Sharpeville in the Transvaal.
• The event came to be known as
the Sharpeville Massacre. In
response to Sharpeville, the
government outlawed the
African National Congress
(ANC).
March 21,1960: Sharpeville Massacre
A large crowd of Black South Africans assembled in front of the
Sharpeville police station to protest the pass laws imposed by
apartheid.
The Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), led by Robert Sobukwe, together
with Nelson Mandela's African National Congress (ANC), organized
the protest for the nation's blacks to join together to demonstrate
peacefully against apartheid.
Rarely in South Africa before 1960 had so many black people
demonstrated their defiance of the laws in any way. The police were
highly apprehensive, not knowing what to expect. Suddenly, tensions
were released: the crowd pelted the policemen with stones, and the
edgy policemen retaliated with gunfire.
In the end, sixty-nine protesters were killed and one hundred and eighty
were wounded (some shot while trying to flee)
1960 Sharpeville Massacre
• In 1960, during a
peaceful protest in
the city of
Sharpeville, 69
people were killed
• This massacre ignited
additional
demonstrations and
protests against the
unfair treatment of
non-whites
Black vs. White
Black
White
• Protested
• Police controlled situation
• Did not want pass laws
• Threw stones
• Did not think blacks
deserved same rights as
whites
• Mostly Black People
• Shot at blacks
• White Government
Sharpeville Uprising
Government
• Declared state of emergency
• Detained 18,000 people
• Changed from passive resistance to armed
• More security for enforcing racist laws
• Sharpeville was a turning point in South Africa
After the Sharpeville
Massacre, the government
banned (exile) all black
African political
organization, including the
ANC and the PAC.
Reaction to the Sharpeville Massacre
• Countries gave South Africa sympathy
• UN condemned the government
• Called for Resolution 134
• Resolution is a plan to make both government and the
citizens happy
• Stated start of racial harmony throughout South Africa
Conclusion
•
The Sharpeville Massacre was the start of a new beginning
for South Africa, although it came with the loss of many
innocent people.
• The bravery displayed by the blacks is outstanding.
• The protests, the riots, the strikes all led up to the racial
harmony throughout South Africa.
• With the help of the UN, other countries, and brave
government officials, the Sharpeville Massacre was the start
of a new chapter in South Africa.
Soweto Uprising
Cause of the Riot in Soweto in 1976
• When black students went to high school, they had to learn
a language.
• Most students wanted to learn English because it was a
general language that people spoke.
• However, the government forced the students to learn
Afrikaans, the language of Apartheid.
• The blacks were angry, so they boycotted the classes and
went to protest in Soweto.
Bantu Education
“There is no place for [the Bantu] in the European community above
the level of certain forms of labour ... What is the use of teaching
the Bantu child mathematics when it cannot use it in practice?
That is quite absurd. Education must train people in accordance
with their opportunities in life, according to the sphere in which
they live.”
- Henrik Verwoerd, Minister of Education, 1958
"We
shall reject the whole system of Bantu Education
whose aim is to reduce us, mentally and physically,
into 'hewers of wood and drawers of water'."
Soweto Students Representative Council, 1976
Apartheid in South Africa
• Soweto Riots- 1976
–Township near Johannesberg with
over 1 million blacks
–Centered around the teaching of
Afrikaans
–Started with class boycotts, led to
largest riots in South African history
The riot in Soweto
• The march in Soweto spread to
other towns in South Africa.
• The march in Soweto was
meant to be peaceful and
nonviolent.
• However, it wasn't taken as a
march to make a point
nonviolently.
• Many people were killed,
including thirteen year old
children.
The Soweto Uprising
• Young people had been forced to learn Afrikaans in school, the language
of the Dutch settlers.
• They were not allowed to speak or learn in their own language.
• June 16, 1976, school-children protesting the right to be taught in their
own language were shot by police. 69 school-kids died. The day is now
commemorated in South Africa as Youth Day.
• People around the world were outraged. But it was to be almost 20 years
until the Apartheid system collapsed.
• At the time, Nelson Mandela was serving his time in prison for what the
government called ‘terrorist’ activities.
1976: Soweto
When high-school students in Soweto
started protesting for better education
on June 16, 1976,police responded
with teargas and live bullets. In the
aftermath, the plan for schooling in
Afrikaans was dropped and the UN
banned sales of weapons to South
Africa in 1977.
Riot in Soweto
Soweto Student Uprising
• "It
was a picture that got the
world‘s attention: A frozen
moment in time that showed
13-year-old Hector Peterson
dying after being struck
down by a policeman's
bullet. At his side was his
17-year-old sister. ” (source)
Student Uprising: 1976
 Black students were
forced to learn in
Afrikaans.
 Protests against
Afrikaans started.
 More than 500 black
students killed by
white policemen.
 More than a
thousand men,
women and children
wounded.
By Mzoli Mncanca
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1976: Soweto Riots
On June 16 Between 15,000 and
20,000 high-school students in
Soweto marched in protest, calling
for better education for blacks.
Police responded by releasing attack
dogs and firing teargas and live
bullets into the crowd.
Students threw rocks and started
setting fires to symbols of apartheid,
such as government buildings and
beer halls.
Army helicopters and Anti-Urban
Terrorism units arrived.
The battle between students and
police continued into the night.
Some estimated the death toll at
200.
Many more were injured.
The rioting spread to other towns
and the government closed the
schools
Effects of Soweto
• June 1976 – Soweto uprisings ignited new wave of
activism – call to make South Africa ‘ungovernable’
– International solidarity
– Divestment and Sanctions
– Free Mandela Campaign
Artwork re. Anti-Apartheid
movements & Race Relations: Ironic
Ad
Protesting Apartheid
Meeting Violence with Violence
• Mandela, other ANC leaders decided to meet violence with violence
• Government banned ANC, jailed Mandela
• 1976, major student protest movement in township of Soweto
Soweto Uprising
• Soweto Uprising set off by decree for black schools to teach Afrikaans—language of
white South Africans
• Police killed protesting student; peaceful march turned into revolt
Trade Sanctions
• Police crushed uprising, but over 600 killed, 4,000 wounded
• ANC fought to end apartheid; violence erupted in many black townships
• International community imposed trade sanctions on South Africa
On your Left Side:
• If you were a
black student in
South Africa,
would you have
taken part in
either of the
protests?
• Why or why
not?
• If you were alive
and a high school
or college student
in America and
saw the reports of
the two protests
on the news, what
would you think
and why?
Black Consciousness Movement
Steven Biko
Steven Biko
• A medical student &
president of the Black
Consciousness Movement
(which emphasized positive
black self-image & action)
• Was banned to speak to
more than one person at a
time & was arrested in Aug.
of 1977.
Organizing From Within:
Black Consciousness Movement
• Emerges from black-only
universities
• Establishment of South
African Students Union
(SASO)
• Influenced by black power in the
U.S., black theology
• Black African empowerment
through internal strength
• Self-reliant struggle: black Africans
must lead their own emancipation
movement
• Means: community reorganization, self-reliance, student
activism
“The most potent weapon in the hands
of the oppressor is the mind of the
oppressed.”
- Steve Biko, a leader of the Black
Consciousness Movement
His activities as a leader
Biko`s leadership abilities were perceptible from his
involvement with different black activist groups:
• the Student`s Representative Council
• National Union of South African
Students
• University Christian Movement
• South African Students Organisation
• Black Community Programs
• The Black Consciousness Movement
Biko was a leader in all of these groups.
Biko`s ambitions and attitudes
• Steve Biko is remembered today for the
hope and inspiration he gave to all
of South Africa
• One of Biko‘s ambitions was “to have a
new attitude towards and a new way of
life that promoted black pride“
• He believed that “the black man`s main
problem was his attitude of inferiority
and he believed that if black men thought
more of themselves, white men would
have a harder punishing the blacks under the rule of Apartheid
• Another belief was if black men united the battle of
oppression would be an easier battle
• Biko said:
“Black Consciousness is an attitude of mind, a way of life“
Black Consciousness
• In the context of the
struggle against
apartheid, Biko
argued that the first
step towards
liberation was to
reshape the way in
which black Africans
understood their own
situation
Black Consciousness
“Black Consciousness is an attitude of mind and a
way of life, the most positive call to emanate from
the black world for a long time. Its essence is the
realisszation by the black man of the need to rally
together with his brothers around the cause of their
oppression -- the blackness of their skin -- and to
operate as agroup to rid themselves of the shackles
that bind them to perpetual servitude.”
Black Consciousness
• Blacks must reclaim their identity and redefine it on
their own terms, rather than in those set by the
white oppressors.
• “The philosophy of Black Consciousness therefore
expresses group pride and the determination of the
black to rise and attain the envisaged self. Freedom
is the ability to define oneself with one’s possibilities
held back not by the power of other people over one
but only by one’s relationship to God and to natural
surroundings.”
Black Consciousness
• How do we effect that change? Education
• Biko draws attention to the corrupting effects of
education when it is in the hands of, and done for
the benefit of, the oppressor.
• White educators try to impart “civilization” and
“culture” and in doing so are -- explicitly or not -denigrating native black culture
• In the process, traditional African mores and beliefs
are ripped apart and discarded
• Biko argues that blacks need to resist the
indoctrination and rediscover their own history
Black Consciousness
• Note that in celebrating black
consciousness and black
identity, Biko is careful to point
out that this itself is not just
another form of racism
“Racism does not only imply
exclusion of one race by
another -- it always
presupposes that the exclusion
is for the purposes of
subjugation. Blacks have had
enough experience as objects
of racism not to wish to turn
the table”
Biko's Silence
• Jailed several times for his
strong protests
o Against government
• Kept in prison for years
o Detention cells
• Chained by his hands and
feet, and wrapped in urine
soaked sheets
o Jail officials
o Police officers
• Beaten to death by police
Steve Biko
• He was “banned” by the
government in 1973, which
meant he was not permitted to
travel across the country.
• He was arrested on 21 August
1977 and, while in police
custody in Port Elizabeth,
sustained a massive head
injury.
• Police reports indicated he was
behaving erratically and
uncooperative.
• Left lying naked and shackled
to a metal grille in cell.
Biko‘s Murder
• A banning order was set, so leaving King William`s
Town would be illegal
• While traveling to Cape Town, he was stopped by white
police officers
• The police took him in custody
• In prison Biko was beaten with a hose, and then pushed
into a wall
•The police officers began the beating during the interrogation
because “he tried to sit down while being questioned“
• Biko`s head was pushed into the wall so severely that they
shifted the inside of his brains
• He was found six days after the killing, naked, lying dead
in his jail cell
Steve Biko
• Three doctors on duty
disregarded the injury.
• On September 11,
another police doctor
recommended medical
attention, but instead he
was driven 600 miles to
Pretoria (about 12 hours),
a trip which he made
lying naked in the back of
a Land Rover.
Steve Biko
• After arriving at the
Pretoria Central Prison he
was left naked on a floor
and unattended, awaiting
transfer to the hospital.
• A few hours later, on 12
September, alone and still
naked, lying on the floor
of a cell in the Pretoria
Central Prison, Biko died
from brain damage.
Biko’s
Murder
• At first when questioned about this murder the police
officers told the public: “there was no beating or torture
connected to his death“
• Aother statement by the police was: “ Biko got a head
injury when we had to restrain him after he went berserk
to arrest the police officers the comission required a
confession of this brutal crime, but they had to wait long
only recently did the police confess the truth but full
reponsibility was not taken
As a result of Biko`s death in 1977, all Black
Consciousness Organizations were banned
Steven Biko
• He suffered a major head injury
while in police custody, and was
chained to a window grille for a
full day. The police loaded him
into the back of a car and began
the 740-mile drive to Pretoria. He
died shortly after arrival at the
Pretoria prison. The police
claimed his death was the result
of an extended hunger strike. He
was found to have massive
injuries to the head, which many
saw as strong evidence that he
had been brutally clubbed by his
captors.
Steve Biko
A young Black leader
Grave in King Williams
Town, South Africa.
Died in police
detention in 1977.
During the inquest into
his death, strong
evidence was
presented that he
suffered violent and
inhumane treatment
during his detention.
His honourable funeral
• Thousands of Africans showed up at Biko´s funeral along
with
representatives from thirteen Western States to share
in the mourning of such a nobel leader´s death
• People say that he was a husband, a friend and a leader
• His wife Wendy once said:
“we are honored to have been
among the friends of a man born
with unusual leadership qualities
and an unrelenting dedication to
the liberation of his people.“
Death of Steve Biko in police
custody, 1977
Steve Biko
• In 1985, the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (created after the fall of
apartheid) found that:
"The Commission finds that the death in detention of Mr Stephen Bantu
Biko on 12 September 1977 was a gross human rights violation.
Magistrate Marthinus Prins found that the members of the SAP were not
implicated in his death. The magistrate's finding contributed to the
creation of a culture of impunity in the SAP. Despite the inquest finding no
person responsible for his death, the Commission finds that, in view of the
fact that Biko died in the custody of law enforcement officials, the
probabilities are that he died as a result of injuries sustained during his
detention."
Robben Island
• prisoners crushing rocks at Robben Island
United Democratic Front, Strikes,
Boycotts, and More Violence
Protest in the 1980s
United Democratic Front
This organization helped get the word out to the world about apartheid.
The struggle against apartheid
• In the 1980s, the United Democratic Front was
a a multi-racial coalition of community-based
groups, trade unions, church groups, students,
that launched a grassroots struggle against
apartheid.
• In 1985, the Congress of South African Trade
Unions was formed (COSATU).
The United Democratic Front
(UDF)
• est. 1983, ANC-supported
• Primary goal: to coordinate
activities of anti-apartheid orgs,
and to resist state’s recent
constitutional reforms
• Organized as a federation of
regionally based fronts
– Umbrella federation for more
than 600 local orgs
• Prominent church leaders, civic
leaders, former ANC reps,
students
• (mostly) Espoused nonviolence
Framing…
Repertoires…
Expanding repertoires
•
Trade Unionism:
• New consumption & worker power in
black African communities
• New multi-racial unions & labor orgs
– Black union membership jumped
from 40,000 in 1975 to 247,000 in
1981 and to 1.5 million in 1985
– Congress of South African Trade
Unions (COSATU): umbrella org
representing more than 500,000
trade union members
• Strikes & protests: African labor unions
legalized in 1979
– 1984: 464 strikes; 1987: 1,148
strikes
– In 1985 more than 390 strikes
involving 240,000 workers

Schoolchild activism


Urban migration
Poor state of schools
In 1970s a black child’s
education cost one-tenth
of a white child’s

Schoolchildren
increasingly involved in
political demonstrations
 Class boycotts

Movement reorganization
• ‘Civics’
– Created in part to protest and
supplant local govt. in townships
– Neighborhood organization &
direct action
– Consumer boycotts
– Political theatre
“All the mothers and the
fathers, the brothers and
the sisters, the
grandmothers and the
grandfathers, the dogs and
the cats– they all have
joined in the struggle.”
•
1984-86 uprising: “ungovernability”
– Urban revolt & clashes between
youths & security forces
– Collapse of state authority in
some areas
– Creation of township “shadow”
governments
– Upsurge in political violence
• ’84-’88: around 3,500
people killed;
• Around 45,000 detained
without trial
– Black on black violence
• Inkatha Freedom Party, est.
1975
Street barricades in Cape Town, 1985.
State of Emergency 1986-1990
• 1986, the South African government decided that the
antiapartheid movement was threatening all-white rule
and cracked down on resistance.
• The government used mass arrests, torture, and rigged
trials to crush opposition.
• More than 20,000 people were arrested.
• Resistance increased despite the harshness of the state of
emergency.
International Responses to
Apartheid
African Americans Take on Apartheid
Slow Beginnings
• Early 1960s Western nations traded heavily with South Africa; western governments
did not want to suspend trade with South Africa
• Some international organizations moved quickly against apartheid; United Nations
voted to ban arms sales to South Africa in 1963; WHO and others ousted South
Africa from ranks; South Africa excluded from Olympics
International Protests
• European and U.S. citizens protested against apartheid; public opinion finally led
European and U.S. lawmakers to act against apartheid
• In 1985 both the UK and the U.S. leveled sanctions, penalties intended to force a
country to change its policies, against the South African government
• Companies began a policy of divestment, or shedding of business ties
Mid 1970’s – Mid 1980’s
The government implemented a series of reforms that allowed
black labor unions to organize and permitted some political
activity by the opposition.
The 1984 constitution opened parliament membership to
Asians and Coloreds, but it continued to exclude black Africans,
who made up 75% of the population.
Many countries, including the United States, imposed economic
sanctions of South Africa. More urban revolts erupted and, as
outside pressure on south Africa intensified, the government’s
apartheid policies began to unravel.
International Sanctions
• During the 70s, 80, & 90s the Union enforced
trade sanctions (arms)
• International pressure came in the form of an
economic & cultural boycott.
– Countries stopped doing business with South
Africa
– Sporting events were boycotted if they included a
South African Team
The Rest of the World

In 1960 the U.N. agreed to put pressure on S.
Africa to end Apartheid
- Why at this time? What happened in 1960?
- More official condemnations between 1962 and 1974


U.N. passed voluntary arms embargo in 1963 and
made it mandatory in 1977
25 nations, including U.S. and Britain passed
sanctions by the late 1980's
Sports Boycotts

S. Africa banned from the 1964 and 1968 Olympic
games
- George Houser an important American figure in
organizing support for boycotts


32 Countries boycotted the 1986 Commonwealth
Games
Most nations did not lift sporting bans till 1993
Apartheid in South Africa
• International Response
–Divestment- Cease business
relationships with companies that
do business in South Africa
–Sanctions (1985)- United States
imposed limited sanctions on the
South Africans; many other
European nations followed
On your Left Side with your partner:
• What does the
cartoonist mean
or is trying to
prove with each
political cartoon?
• How do you
know?
• What would be a
good sarcastic
caption for each
political
cartoon?
• Explain
Role of Desmond Tutu
South Africa
• During the 1980s the
charismatic Anglican bishop,
Desmond Tutu, rallied
western support with a call
for boycott of South Africa,
primarily through economic
sanctions.
• In 1984 he was awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize in
recognition of "the courage
and heroism shown by black
South Africans in their use
of peaceful methods in the
struggle against apartheid".
Desmond Tutu
Truth and Reconciliation Commission
• The commissions
purpose was to
investigate crimes that
happened during
apartheid.
• The commission let
victims and
perpetrators of
violence be heard and
forgiven.
Truth and Reconciliation Commission
Cont.
• The idea behind the commission
was that if perpetrators spoke up
they would be given amnesty.
• Amnesty makes a person innocent
and forgivin for their crimes.
• People from all different groups
could speak out.
• Tutu was the leading force behind
the commission.
1985 International
Demonstration Against
Apartheid
1985 Demonstration
• In 1985 an
International Day for
the Elimination of
Racial Discrimination
was organized.
• The demonstration
was held at Langa
Township in
Uitenhage.
• The day
commemorates the
anniversary of the
March 21, 1960
massacre.
1985 Demonstration
• The message
was simple:
“Freedom in
Our
Lifetime!”
On your Left side with your partner:
•Come up with a
slogan and a symbol
that are against
apartheid.
The End of Apartheid
1980s
• In 1978, new president (P W Botha) realised
apartheid was not sustainable
• Started process of reform, eg
– In 1981 beaches no longer segregated
– In 1983 blacks allowed to vote
– In 1986 Pass Laws abandoned
• Pressure from Bishop Desmond Tutu,
internationally-known for opposition to
apartheid
• In 1988, UN demands release of Mandela
End of Apartheid
• By late 1980s, SA was experiencing increasing
violence, becoming ungovernable
• In Aug 1989, Botha resigns as president
• New president, F W de Klerk, realised a new
approach was necessary
• De Klerk met Mandela and
lifts the ban on the ANC &
Mandela released from prison
The End of Apartheid
Pressure Succeeds
• 1989 South African government began to dismantle apartheid system
• President F.W. de Klerk lifted ban on anti-apartheid rallies; restored legal status of
ANC; and ordered Mandela released after 27 years imprisonment
Mandela Free
• Nelson Mandela spoke out; urging that sanctions stay in place until the “total
elimination of apartheid and the extension of the vote to all people.”
• Mandela also recalled being inspired by traditions in American history
Dismantling of Apartheid
• 1991 all apartheid laws repealed; three years later country held first all-races
election, the ANC won majority of seats; Mandela elected president
• Mandela and de Klerk shared 1993 Nobel Prize for work to end apartheid
Momentous Meetings
• In May 1988, the United Nations called for Mandela’s release
without conditions.
• In July 1989, President Botha met with Mandela.
• Both men pledged a “support for peaceful developments.”
• Both resigned due to health reasons and was succeeded as
president by F.W. de Klerk.
• Determined to break the “cycle of violence,” de Klerk ordered
the release of eight political prisoners.
South Africa
• In 1989 Frederick W. de Klerk
took over as President from P.W.
Botha, who had suffered a stroke.
• Much more liberal than Botha, de
Klerk soon openly admitted the
failure of apartheid policies.
• Important reason for collapse of
old regime was effects of many
years of economic and trade
embargo.
• Sanctions enacted by many
nations led to a desolate state for
the South African economy.
FW de Klerk
• De Klerk and Mandela met in
December.
• Mandela declared de Klerk
to be “the most honest and
serious white leader” he had
ever met.
• On February 2, 1990, de
Klerk announced the end of
the bans on the ANC, the
PAC, and over 30 other antiapartheid organizations
Free At Last!
On February 11, 1990, after 27 years in
prison, Nelson Mandela was released.
“Today the majority of South Africans, black
and white, recognize that apartheid has no
future.” – Nelson Mandela
Democracy in South Africa
• 1990, President F.W. de Klerk legalized ANC, began
negotiations to enact new constitution, end apartheid
– Released Mandela from prison
– Lifted long-standing ban on African National Congress
• De Klerk also abolished homelands, held South Africa’s first
democratic elections
– ANC swept elections
– Mandela became first black president of a democratic South Africa
End of Apartheid
• Elections set for April 1994 – 16m blacks allowed
to vote (about ½ couldn’t read)
• ANC gained 62% of the vote, 300 years of white
rule were over
Nobel Peace Prize
• Mandela and De Klerk both won the Nobel
Peace Prize in 1993 for their efforts to end
Apartheid.
• Accepting the award on December 10, 1993,
Mandela declared:
“We live in the hope that as she battles to remake
herself, South Africa will be like a microcosm of the
new world that is striving to be born.”
On your Left Side:
• If we were to
• If we were to
create a Wanted create a Hero
Poster
for
Poster for
Nelson
Mandela,
Nelson
what would be
Mandela, what
on his list of
would be on his
achievements?
list of crimes?
1994
• Reservations abolished and territories
reabsorbed into the nation of South Africa
• Apartheid caused major economic hardships
on South Africa
• International sanctions
• Decreased labor force
• Cut investments from countries like U.S.A.
• First multiracial election
• Nelson Mandela elected president of South
Africa (1994 – 1999)
A New Government
Nelson Mandela casts the first vote for the new government of South
Africa.
On April 27,1994, Nelson Mandela
became South Africa’s FIRST black
president!
On April 27, 1994, Nelson Mandela was elected
the first black president if the first free election.
“We are moving from an era of resistance, division,
oppression, turmoil, and conflict and starting a
New era of hope, reconciliation, and nation-building. I
sincerely hope that the mere casting of a vote . . . will give
hope to all South Africans.”- Nelson Mandela
On your Left Side:
• What does the cartoonist
mean with the following
political cartoon?
• What would be a good overall
sarcastic caption to use to
emphasize this message?
Presidency
•
•
•
•
•
•
Inaugurated May 10th, 1994
First black president of South Africa
Aimed to improve social and economic
conditions for black majority
– Large scale redistribution of wealth
Truth and Reconciliation Commission
– Human rights violations from old regime
– Improved living standards of black
population
• Better housing and education
Violence control
– Afrikaner Resistance Movement
• Extremists opposing new government
using terrorism
Legislation to protect workers
– Workplace safety, overtime pay, minimum
wage
Retirement
• Decided not to run for
reelection in 1997
• Supported Thabo Mbeki
– Inaugurated June 16, 1999
• Retired from public life in 2004
• Committed to fight against
HIV/AIDS epidemic
– Son Makgatho Mandela
died of AIDS on January 6th,
2005
On your Left Side: What is the main
message of this speech?
“ We have at last achieved our
political emancipation. We pledge
ourselves to liberate all our people
from the continuing bondage of
poverty, deprivation, suffering,
gender, and other discrimination
. . . Never, never, and never again
shall it be that this beautiful land
will again experience the
oppression of one by another. . .
Let freedom reign.”
Life after Democracy
• 1994 – 1997 Nelson Mandela became the first
Black President, FW De Klerk the first Deputy
President and Thabo Mbeki the second.
• 1997 – 2006 then Thabo Mbeki become the
second Black President and Jacob Zuma was a
Deputy President.
On your Left Side with your partner:
• What is the
message of
each political
cartoon?
• How can you
tell?
• What would
be a good
sarcastic
caption for
each?
South Africa After Apartheid
Cont
• 2009 Jacob Zuma become
the fourth Democratic
President up until today
after the Acting President
Ralima Motlhale.
Political South Africa
• The political structure of our
nation has been shaped
directly by the influences of
the Apartheid era.
• Political parties, politicians
and our very constitution
have been shaped by the
struggle.
• Consequently policies and
legislation today attempt to
redress the imbalance that
was a characteristic of the
Apartheid era
IMPACT OF APARTHEID
Politics 1: Political Parties
African National Congress:
A popular party partly because it took a pivotal
role in the overthrow of Apartheid
New National Party:
Struggles with its past as the party that
implemented Apartheid. Not popular but has
supporters amongst some Coloured and Whites
Democratic Alliance:
The remnants of the liberal parties of the
Apartheid era (PFP, DP etc). Continues to
safeguard principles of democracy but looks to
protect economic privilege
IMPACT OF APARTHEID
Politics 1: Political Parties
Inkatha Freedom Party
A tribal based party (Zulu) was formed out of the
divisions sponsored by the policy of Separate
Development
Freedom Front
Last stand of the Afrikaaner movements. Tends to
have realistic outlook but wants to protect
Afrikaaner values
Pan African Congress:
Important player in struggle but Africanist stance
limits appeal to other racial groups. Small but
influential group
IMPACT OF APARTHEID
Politics 2: Our Politicians
President
Thabo Mbeki’s father, Goven, was head of
the ANC during the exile years
Former
President
Nelson Mandela played a critical role in
the struggle and was imprisoned on
Robben Island
IMPACT OF APARTHEID
Politics 3: The Constitution
• The concerns raised by the injustices of
Apartheid have resulted in the
formularization of our democratic
constitution. This document is the envy of
numerous nations who do not have the
freedoms we have.
• Your right to freedom in terms of:
– Race
– Sex
– Religion
– Sexual Orientation
– Gender
… are all protected in terms of the South
African Constitution
IMPACT OF APARTHEID
RETURN TO MENU
Economic South Africa
The economic structure of our
nation has also been shaped
directly by the influences of the
Apartheid era. Political power
might now rest with the black
majority but economic power
still rests with the white classes
who hold important positions
within nearly all sectors of the
economy. Affirmative action is
one such strategy designed to
try and change this.
IMPACT OF APARTHEID
Economics 1: Corporate Power
Corporate power rests with the
historically advantaged classes
and therefore is still dominated
by English and Afrikaans
speaking families. Foreign
investors too influence the
goings on in the corporate
world. Foreign based companies
such as Anglo America, Anglo
Gold etc. are big economic
players
IMPACT OF APARTHEID
Economics 2: Social Classes
The economic divisions are obvious
to us today. Schooling is just one
area where most blacks and many
whites still experience the
disadvantages or benefits derived
from their economic class
IMPACT OF APARTHEID
RETURN TO MENU
Challenges facing SA today
• High rate of unemployment
• Inequality with a racial overlay
• Lastly, poverty especially to those who were disadvantaged
before democracy.
In schools :
• Endemic to rural areas including overcrowding, poor school
infrastructure (including collapsing ceilings and broken
windows), high student to teacher ratio, long walk to get to
school and lastly, the lack of teaching and learning resources.
On your Left Side:
• What challenges or
problems facing South
Africa today is the political
cartoon addressing?
• Explain.
Building the New South Africa
• After the 1994 elections, South Africa faced the
challenge of integrating the former White, Colored,
Indian, and African departments of government.
• Provinces that included former homelands had the
added burden of integrating those departments as
well.
• The Province of the Eastern Cape, with two
homelands, integrated 6 separate departments into
one unified Department of Education
Status of Education in SA
• The most recent government report:
– # of overcrowded schools has fallen from 51%
(1999) to 42% (2006)
– School electrification has risen from 11,174 (1996)
to 20,713 (2006)
– Schools without water has dropped from 8,823
(1996) to 3,152 (2006)
– Schools without on-site toilets dropped from
3,265 (1996) to 1,532 (2006)
Status of Education in SA
• Current areas of debate
– Mother-tongue instruction; when is English
introduced?
– Outcomes Based Education; how to be successful
when the tools needed are not available
– No-fee Schools; ensuring these schools are
centers of excellence
– Instituting Standards for School Principals;
setting qualifications and course work
Opening Education to All
• 1994 - universal access to single system of
education
• 1996 - Constitution extended compulsory
education to grades 1 – 9 (ages 6 – 15)
• 1999 Tirisanot Programme of Action focused
on improving the quality of secondary schools
Economic Equity in Education
• Fee-free schools
– Up to 40% of all schools in 2007
National Nutrition Program
• Feeds 1.6-million schoolchildren every day
• Nearly 2000 school gardens
with federal,
local and
NGO support
Ongoing Education Issues in South
Africa
• Violences in schools is increasing, Special
needs and problems resulting from the HIV/
AIDS pandemic, social problems such as
substance abuse.
• Non-governmental organisation are the main
providers of children’ social welfare services
and working along with the government.
ABOUT THE POET
Tatamkhulu Afrika (1920–2002) was
born in Egypt to a Turkish mother and an
Arab father, but was orphaned as an
infant and adopted by white South
Africans. His poetry and writing
conveyed his opposition to
apartheid.
CONTENT
This is an AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL poem
written in the FIRST PERSON about a
man’s journey to a district that
has changed in recent years. The area is
DISTRICT SIX which was an area ONLY
for WHITE people during apartheid.
CONTENT
The poem begins with the poet visiting
District Six after apartheid ended and
anybody, black or white is allowed to go
there. He describes how the area is
being redeveloped with
new houses and
fashionable restaurants.
CONTENT
HOWEVER, at the time the poem was
written many black people would not have
been able to afford to go there or were
not made to feel welcome. This makes
the poet ANGRY as he feels that it as if
apartheid is still in existence.
On your Left Side:
•Make notes about the
poem left side of your
Interactive Notes.
NOTHING’S CHANGED
The poet returns to the
wasteland that was once
his home, and
relives the anger he felt
when the area was first
destroyed.
He describes the area
as being neglected and
desolate
Small round hard stones click
under my heels,
seeding grasses thrust
bearded seeds into trouser cuffs, cans,
trodden on, crunch
Alliteration of
in tall, purple-flowering,
the ‘c’ sound
amiable weeds.
creates a harsh
Friendly
tone.
NOTHING’S CHANGED
Although
apartheid is
officially over
Afrika still
feels that there
are divides.
Repetition of
‘and’ 4 times
emphasises
the poets
rising
ANGER.
District Six.
No board says it is:
but my feet know,
and my hands,
and the skin about my bones,
and the soft labouring of my lungs,
and the hot, white, inwards turning
anger of my eyes.
NOTHING’S CHANGED
Here he describes a
high-class
fashionable restaurant.
‘Brash’ suggest
it is big and flashy.
Just beginning to
develop.
Despite
apartheid being
abolished it is
still a ‘whites
only’ restaurant
and even has a
guard to ensure
this.
Simile
Brash with glass,
Name flaring like a flag, ‘Squats’ is an
unattractive verb. It
it squats
suggests that it does
in the grass and weeds
not belong there.
Incipient Port Jackson trees:
New, up-market, haute cuisine,
guard at the gatepost,
whites only inn.
NOTHING’S CHANGED
No sign says it is:
but we know where we belong.
He is speaking
directly
to the reader.
There is no
official
segregation but
inequality still
exists in South
Africa.
NOTHING’S CHANGED
I press my nose
To the clear panes, know,
before I see them, there will be
crushed ice white glass,
linen falls,
the single rose.
Exquisite
images
emphasise
the splendour
of the
‘whites only
inn’
He is looking in
at the exclusive
‘whites only’
restaurant.
Assonance to
stress the
character’s
anger.
NOTHING’S CHANGED
Here we have
a
juxtaposition of
the lives of
white and black
people. White
people dine in a
beautiful
environment.
Whilst IN
CONTRAST
black people
dine in a basic
‘working man’s
café’.
Down the road,
working man’s café sells
bunny chows.
Take it with you, eat
it at a plastic table’s top,
wipe your fingers on your jeans,
spit a little on the floor:
it’s in the bone.
The café
where black
people dine.
‘Bunny chow’ is a
South African
colloquialism
meaning low-quality
fast food.
NOTHING’S CHANGED
‘Boy’ in South Africa
is an insulting
name for a black
male.
‘Nothing’s
Changed’ – The
poem’s ending is
the same as its
title showing
the cyclical
nature of
segregation.
He feels it will
continue despite
the end of
apartheid.
I back from the glass,
boy again,
Leaving small mean O
of small, mean mouth.
Hands burn
for a stone, a bomb,
to shiver down the glass.
Nothing’s changed.
Repetition
Metaphor
showing that he
is ANGRY and
wants to take
revenge!
Social injustice still remained.
Largely confined to poorlypaid manual jobs, black
people formed an economic
underclass.
POETIC TECHNIQUES
1. CONTRAST – between the luxurious
setting of the smart restaurant and the
cheap café.
2. SYMBOLISM – District Six (the most
famous community from which black and mixedrace citizens were evicted) represents
apartheid.
POETIC TECHNIQUES
3. ALLITERATION - the harsh ‘c’
sound, e.g. ‘into trouser cuffs, cans’,
expresses the poet’s ANGER
4. ANGRY DICTION – expresses how
the poet is feeling e.g. ‘anger of my eyes’,
‘mean mouth’, ‘a bomb to shiver down the
glass’.
POETIC TECHNIQUES
5. ONOMATOPOEIA – e.g. ‘click’,
‘crunch’, ‘spit’. These words help us to
follow the man on his journey through the
district, literally and metaphorically.
STRUCTURE
• The poem is written in 6 stanzas of 8
lines each. This regularity illustrates
that the poet is in control of his
emotions and feelings, rather than flying
into a rage.
STRUCTURE
• Each stanza has sentences of varying
length, some with only 2 words:
E.g. ‘District Six.’
• The short sentences convey his
bitterness and anger at the unjust
situation.
MAIN THEMES IN THE POEM
• Cultural Identity
• ANGER at discrimination and racial
prejudice.
• Frustration caused by unfairness in
society.
• Alienation and feeling excluded, ‘….we
know where we belong.’