Transcript Between Two Fires The Inter-War Period

Between Two Fires
The Inter-War Period
Russia - National Collapse



Gregori Rasputin
World War I was devastating
for Russia
Russia’s lack of industrial
development made it
incapable of sustaining a
modern war effort.
With Tsar Nicholas’ failure as a
war leader and Tsarina
Alexandra ineptitude leading
the country at home (coming
under the influence of holy
man Rasputin) he prestige of
the regime was in question.
End of the Tsarist Regime





In early 1917, strikes sweep Petrograd (St.
Petersburg)
Unrest results from war-weariness,
famines, and runaway inflation.
The tsar dissolved the Duma in March.
Nicholas sent troops against the
demonstrators, but they joined them.
The Tsar abdicated on March 15 (February
Revolution)
The Provisional Government




The Duma now became the government, under
the leadership of Prince Lvov.
The liberal dominated Provisional Government
promised reforms, elections, and a constitution
to create a republic.
The government continued the war against the
Central Powers.
Meanwhile, socialists creates soviets (councils of
workers and soldiers) in Petrograd and other
cities; they gave tacit support to the Provisional
Government.
The Bolsheviks



In April, 1917, Vladimir I. Lenin, leader of
the Marxist Bolsheviks, returned for exile
in Switzerland.
He presented his program for workers
revolution, the April Theses, to his
followers.
The Bolsheviks called for “Peace, Land,
and Bread” as their slogan for revolution.
The July Days




The continued military failures
resulted in revolt against the
Provisional Government.
The Petrograd Soviet opposed
the revolt, the Bolsheviks
supported it.
With the revolt suppressed,
Lenin was forced to flee to
Finland, but his support gained
him followers.
In late July, socialist Alexander
Kerensky became leader of the
Provisional Government.
Alexander Kerensky
The October Revolution



Lenin returned and began
plans to overthrow the
provisional government.
On Oct. 24 (Nov. 6) the
Red Guards of the
Petrograd Soviet seized
power from the Provisional
Government.
The next day, Lenin
announced the creation of
the new regime after a
takeover with little
violence.
V.I. Lenin



Born Vladimir Ilyich Ulianov
in 1870.
Studied law, but became
involved in radical activities
which got him exiled in
1900.
In 1898, Russian Marxists
founded the Social
Democratic Party, they split
in two – Bolsheviks and
Mensheviks.
The Bolshevik Regime




The Bolsheviks urged on socialist reforms
after the October Revolution.
They called workers seizure of land and
factories.
Titles of nobility were abolished
The Russian Orthodox Church was
supressed.
The Constituent Assembly




The Provisional Government had scheduled an
election for November which Lenin allowed to go
forward.
The Bolsheviks won only 225 seats, while the
rural back Socialist Revolutionary Party won 420
seats.
After meeting once in Jan. 1918, Lenin dissolved
the assembly.
He also formed he Cheka (secret police) to
combat counter-revolutionary activity,
Ending the War



Negotiations between Russia and Germany
led to the signing of the Treaty of BrestLitovsk in March 1918.
Lenin accepted its harsh terms because he
knew Russia could not fight on and he
believed revolution would soon come to
Germany.
The treaty was nullified by Germany’s
surrender in November 1918.
Civil War


The October Revolution had
caught their opponents off
guard, by spring 1918 they had
regrouped.
The Bolsheviks (who now called
themselves Communists)
controlled the industrial centers
and organized the Red Army
under Leon Trotsky to gain
control of the rest of the
country
Leon Trotsky
Civil War




The anti-communist forces became known
as the Whites.
They were poorly organized.
When they threatened to rescue the royal
family, the family was killed in July 1918.
The Allies provided limited support to the
Whites and they were eventually defeated
in 1920.
War Communism



During the Civil War, the regime
nationalized all major industries and
financial institutions.
Private trade and commerce was
prohibited.
This radical change caused the economy
to spiral into chaos, causing food and fuel
shortages.
The New Economic Policy




Discontent mounted with the worsening
economic situation.
Recognizing the need for change, Lenin
introduced the NEP in March 1921.
While major industries remained nationalized,
small industries (particularly in agriculture) were
allowed to trade privately.
Lenin justified this as one step backward to take
two steps forward.
The Soviet Union



Russia renamed to Soviet Union in 1924
(Union of Soviet Socialist Republics -USSR)
It contained 11 semi-autonomous
republics.
The 1936 Stalin Constitution created the
Supreme Soviet (parliament) directly
elected by all citizens 18 and over.
The Soviet Government




In reality, state control was exercised by
the Communist Party.
Central Committee was the apex of
Soviet power (about 70 people in 1930s)
Politburo: About a dozen members;
dominated discussions of policy and
personnel
General Secretary: highest position of
power; created by Stalin
Power Struggle



Power struggle ensued after
Lenin’s death in 1924: he left
no chosen successor
Joseph Stalin believed in
"Socialism in one
Country": first, Russia had to
be strong
Establishment of a Socialist
economy without the aid of
the West
Power Struggle



Leon Trotsky believed in
"permanent revolution":
continuing a world revolution
Party leaders believed
Trotsky was too idealistic;
Russia first had to survive
Stalin gained control in 1927
and had total control by
1929; Trotsky exiled soon
after.
Stalin’s Victory



Stalin maneuvered to gain
support in the Communist
Party.
He allied himself with various
members of the party.
He had Trotsky expelled then
exiled to Mexico, where he
was murdered by a Stalinist
agent in 1940.
The Five Year Plans


"Revolution from above" (1st Five Year
Plan), 1928; marked end of NEP
Objectives:



Total industrial output to increase by 250%;
steel by 300%; agriculture by 150%
1/5 of peasants were scheduled to give up
their private plots and join collective farms
“We are 50 or 100 years behind the
advanced countries. We must make good this
distance in 10 years. Either we do it or we
shall go under.”
The Five Year Plans


Results: steel up 400%
(now 2nd largest steel
producer in Europe); oil
up 300%; massive
urbanization (25 million
people moved to cities)
Costs: quality of goods
suspect; standard of
living did not rise
Collectivization




Collectivization was the greatest of all
costs
Purpose: bring peasantry under absolute
control of the communist state
Consolidation of individual peasant farms
into large, state-controlled enterprises.
Farmers paid according to amount of
work; portion of harvest paid to gov't
Collectivization




Goals:
Use of machines in
farm production, to
free more people to
work in industry
Gov't control over
production
Extend socialism to
countryside
Collectivization





Results:
Opposed by farmers as it placed them in a
bound situation like the mirs.
Kulaks, wealthiest peasants, offered
greatest resistance to collectivization
Stalin ordered party workers to "liquidate
them as a class."
10 million dead due to collectivization (7
million in forced starvation in Ukraine)
Collectivization





Results:
Agricultural output no greater than in 1913
By 1933, 60% of peasant families were on
collective farms; 93% by 1938.
Eventually, the state was assured of grain for
bread for urban workers who were more
important politically than the peasants.
Collective farmers first had to meet grain quotas
before feeding themselves.
Soviet Reforms





Benefits for workers:
Old-age pensions, free medical services, free
education, and day-care centers for children
Education was key to improving one’s position:
specialized skills and technical education.
Many Russians saw themselves building world’s
first socialist society while capitalism crumbled
during the Great Depression
USSR attracted many disillusioned Westerners to
communism in the 1930s.
Stalin's propaganda campaign






Purpose: To glorify work to soviet
people--an attempt to encourage worker
productivity
Used technology for propaganda
Newspapers (esp. Pravda), films, and
radio broadcasts emphasized socialist
achievements and capitalist plots.
Sergei Eisenstein: patriotic Russian
filmmaker (socialist realism)
Writers & artists expected to glorify
Stalin and the state; work was closely
monitored
Religion was persecuted: Stalin hoped to
turn churches into "museums of
atheism"
Women






Russian Revolution immediately proclaimed
complete equality of rights for women.
In 1920s divorce and abortion made easily
available.
Women urged to work outside the home and
many women worked as professionals and in
universities.
Women still expected to do household chores in
off hours as Soviet men considered home and
children women’s responsibility.
Men continued to monopolize the best jobs.
Rapid change and economic hardship led to
many broken families.
The Great Purge



First directed against peasants after 1929,
terror used increasingly on leading
Communists, powerful administrators, and
ordinary people, often for no apparent
reason.
The "Great Purge" resulted in 8 million
arrests
Show trials used eradicate "enemies of
the people" (usually ex-party members)
The Great Purge



Late 1930s, dozens of Old Bolsheviks
tried and executed (Lenin's closest
followers)
Purges: 40,000 army officers were
expelled or liquidated (weakened USSR in
WWII)
Millions of citizens were killed, died in
labor camps, or simply disappeared.
Postwar Italy


World War I left Italy with little national
glory.
Economic problems plagued the country.




Huge national debt
Runaway inflation
Massive unemployment
The Socialist Party appeared ready to fill
the political vacuum, but they remained
split.
Causes for Rise of Fascism




In early 20th century, Italy was a liberal state
with civil rights and constitutional monarchy.
Versailles Treaty: Italian nationalists angry that
Italy did not receive any Austrian or Ottoman
territory, (Italia Irredenta) or Germany’s
African colonies as promised.
Depression in 1919 caused nationwide strikes
and class tension.
Failure of strong leadership opened
opportunities.
Fascism



Wealthy classes fearful of communist revolution
looked to strong anti-communist leader
By 1921 revolutionary socialists, conservatives
and property owners were all opposed to liberal
parliamentary government.
Fascism in Italy eventually a combination of
conservative authoritarianism and modern
totalitarianism (although not as extreme as
Russia or Germany)
Benito Mussolini




Benito Mussolini
(1883-1945) rises to
power ("Il Duce")
Editor of a socialist
newspaper yet was a
nationalist.
Organized the Fascist
party
Initially, failed to
succeed because of
competition from wellorganized Socialists.
Fascist Movement




Combination of socialism and nationalism:
territorial expansion, benefits for workers, and
land reform for peasants.
Named after fasces: the rods carried by Imperial
Roman officials as symbols of power.
1920, Mussolini gained support of conservative
classes and frightened middle class for antiSocialist rhetoric; abandoned his socialist
programs.
Blackshirts (squadristi): Paramilitary forces
attacked Communists, socialists, and other
enemies of the fascist program (later, Hitler's
"Brown Shirts" followed this example)
Fascist Movement





March on Rome, October 1922: led
to Mussolini taking power
Mussolini demanded resignation of
existing gov’t and his own
appointment by the king.
Large group of Fascists marched on
Rome to threaten king to accept
Mussolini's demands.
Government collapsed; Mussolini
received right to organize a new
cabinet (government).
Victor Emmanuel III gave him
dictatorial powers for 1 year to end
nation’s social unrest.
The Corporate State






Corporate State (syndicalist-corporate
system) was the economic basis for Italian
fascism.
“Everything in the state, nothing outside
the state, nothing against the state.”
By 1928, all independent labor unions organized
into government-controlled syndicates
Established organizations of workers and
employers and outlawed strikes and walkouts.
Created corporations which coordinated
activities between worker-employer syndicates.
Authority from the top, unlike socialist corporate
states where workers made decisions.
Fascist Rule





Right to vote severely limited.
All candidates for Italian parliament selected by
Fascist party.
Government ruled by decree.
Dedicated fascists put in control of schools.
Created fascist youth movement, labor unions,
and other fascist organizations: Dopolavoro
(After Work) and Balilla (Fascist Youth
Organization) failed to regulate leisure time.
Fascist Rule





Mussolini never became all-powerful
Failed in attempt to “Fascistize” Italian
society by controlling leisure time
Old power structure of conservatives,
military, and church remained intact.
Mussolini never attempted to purge
conservative classes.
He propagandized and controlled labor but
left big business to regulate itself.
Fascist Rule


Did not establish ruthless
police state (only 23 political
prisoners executed bet. 19261944)
Racial laws not passed until
1938 and savage persecution
of Jews not until late in WWII
when Italy was under Nazi
control.
Women Under Fascism



Divorce abolished and women told to stay
home and procreate.
Decreed a special tax on bachelors in
1934.
1938, women limited by law to a
maximum of 10% of better-paying jobs in
industry & gov't
Fascist Accomplishments





Internal improvements made such as
electrification and road building.
More efficient municipal governing.
Suppression of the Mafia
Improvement of the justice system
(except for “enemies of the state”)
Lateran Pact, 1929, resulted in
reconciliation with the papacy
Postwar Germany



With the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II
on Nov. 9th, 1918, Germany became a
republic under the leadership of the Social
Democrats.
This came as a shock to most, since they
believed Germany was winning the war.
The republic faced its first challenge with
the Spartacist Revolt in Jan. 1919.
Weimar Republic



German voters chose democracy as the
National Assembly met in Weimar to draft
a constitution.
It created a two house parliament (elected
by proportional representation) and a
president.
Despite this, many conservative
nationalists remained in positions of power
and resented the republic.
Economic Problems




The reparations debt of 132
billion marks ($33 billion)
crippled Germany.
Default allowed the French to
occupy the industrial Ruhr
Valley in 1923.
The industrial workers there
refused to work for the French.
To support them, Germany
printed money, causing rapid
inflation.
Economic Recovery





Gustav Stresemann, replaced the old mark with
a new one, stabilizing the currency.
Passive resistance was ended in the Ruhr and
the reparations issue was addressed.
The Dawes Plan had Germany pay variably
depending on economic strength
In 1925, the Ruhr occupation ended.
The infusion of foreign loans and investment led
to recovery in the late 1920s.
The Depression and 1930 Elections



President Hindenburg faced economic
crisis with the depression in 1930.
In the 1930 election, the Nazis
increased their seats to 107 with the
support of the lower middle class and
peasants.
The Social Democrats continued to
be the largest party with 143 seats
and the communists held 77.
Hindenburg
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)



Born in Austria, he was a
poor student who
unsuccessfully attempted to
become an artist in Vienna.
Moving to Munich, he began
to absorb right-wing ideas.
He enlisted in the German
army and won the Iron Cross.
The Nazi Party



In Munich after the war, Hitler
joined then reorganized a small
nationalist group soon to be
called the National Socialist
German Workers Party
(NSDAP) or Nazis.
He gained followers by
speaking of Germany’s ills and
the disgrace of the Versailles
Treaty.
He formed a paramilitary wing,
the SA, or Brown Shirts.
The Nazi Party



In the Munich Beer Hall Putsch
of Nov. 1923, Hitler and the
Nazis unsuccessfully attempted
to seize power.
Hitler was imprisoned for nine
months.
While in jail, he wrote Mein
Kampf, which expounded his
views on race, politics and
German expansion
(lebensraum).
Rise of Hitler



Following the 1930 elections, Hindenburg and
Chancellor Bruning ruled by decree, but had no
success with the economy.
In spring 1932, Hitler challenged Hindenburg for
the presidency. Hindenberg was relected and
appointed Franz von Papen as chancellor.
He failed to gain wide support and he called for
new elections. In July the Nazis emerged with
209 seats, in November, 196).
Rise of Hitler




Papen resigned and was replaced by Kurt
von Schleicher.
Papen then worked with Hitler to return to
power.
On Jan. 30, 1933, they convinced
Hindenburg to appoint Hitler chancellor
and Papen vice chancellor.
Papen believed he could control Hitler and
be the true leader of the government.
Creation of the Nazi Dictatorship



New elections scheduled for March 1933
were preceded by the Reichstag fire of
Feb. 27.
Hitler blamed the Communists and
convinced Hindenburg to curtail liberties.
In the March 5 election, the Nazis won
288 seats (44%) and with their nationalist
allies controlled the government (88
communists were banned).
Creation of the Nazi Dictatorship



March 23, 1933 – the Reichstag
passed the Enabling Act, giving
Hitler dictatorial powers for 4
years.
The Nazis then consolidated power
by ending the federal system,
abolishing labor unions, outlawing
all other political parties.
The SS and Gestapo were created
and with the death of Hindenburg
in 1934, Hitler assumed his powers
and control of the military.
Nazi Anti-Semitism




Germany’s Jews number about
600,000.
Nazi persecutions began immediately,
but intensified with the passage of the
Nuremberg Laws of 1935.
It defined Jews as anyone with one
Jewish grandparent (increasing the
number to 2.5 million) and deprived
them of citizenship.
On Nov. 9th, 1938, Kristallnacht had
mobs destroying synagogues and
business and the required wearing of
the Star of David on clothing.
Nazi Economic Policy



“Socialist” in Nazi party terms meant
subordination to the needs of the state.
Capitalists were allowed to keep their
businesses and profits if they cooperated.
Unemployment was drastically reduced
through public works projects such as the
autobahns and the Four Year Plans of
1936 which focused on the increase in
military production.
Hungary



Despite being a constitutional
government, Hungary continued to be
dominated through rigged elections by the
old Magyar aristocracy.
Fascism slowly grew in appeal, as did antiSemitism.
Even so, Hungary never became a fullfledged dictatorship.
Romania




Romania’s liberal government gave
way to the rule of King Carol II,
who admired Mussolini.
The Iron Guard became the leader
of fascist inspired activities in
Romania.
The government stripped most
Jews of land and rights, tightened
censorship and imposed martial
law.
In the late 1930’s, Romania turned
away from Fascism.
Yugoslavia


King Alexander I assumed
dictatorial powers in 1929
in an attempt to suppress
the growing nationalism of
Serbians, Croats, and
Slovenians.
The nation drew closer to
Germany and Italy, but
turned back to democratic
rule in the late 1930’s.
King Alexander I
Bulgaria



Bulgaria experienced a military coup in
1934 which began a turn more toward
fascism.
But, like in many other states, Bulgaria
moved back toward liberal measures.
This was done for the support of France
and Britain against a belligerent Germany
and because fascist parties were hard to
control.
Poland




Poland was plagued by
divisions over the proper
course of the nation.
Socialists, Catholics, Fascists,
landowners and peasants
fought for domination of the
country.
Marshall Jozef Pilsudski took
power in an military revolt,
which he relinquished once
his followers had a majority
in parliament.
Poland continued to be
dominated by the military.
Jozef Pilsudski
Greece



General Metaxas
The Greek Rep. (est.
1924) lasted little more
than a decade.
The growing power of the
monarchists brought King
George II back to the
throne.
When liberals made gains,
General Metaxas declared
himself dictator in a
fascist style regime.
Austria




Austria, no longer an imperial nation, was
divided between the cities and
countryside.
The Christian Socialist Party, which
combined welfare, nationalism and
antisemitism, moved toward fascism.
They came into conflict with the Socialists.
In the late 1930’s Nazi Germany became a
dominant influence.
Spain



Economic problems and political
discontent led to the rise of General
Primo de Rivera in a fascist style
dictatorship.
His failure led to his exile by King
Alfonso, who was later exiled
himself.
Republican government did nothing
to solve Spain’s divisions, leading to
the outbreak of the Spanish Civil
War in 1936.
Primo de Rivera
Spread of Fascism



Whether in power or not, most
fascist movements had much in
common.
They used symbolism,
marches, nationalism, and
violence to gain supporters in
the promise of national glory.
They addressed people’s fears
by rejecting Marxism and
capitalism and called for order
based on national unity.
Oswald Mosely
The Great Depression



Despite a strong world economy in the 1920’s
deep seeded problems came to the fore.
The United States, the largest creditor, kept
much of Europe’s economy afloat (U.S. lent to
Germany which paid reparations to Allies who
repaid debts to U.S.).
Many European industries continued to suffer
and runaway inflation in Germany severely
undermined its economy.
The Great Depression



The U.S. stock market crash of
1929 began the process of world
economic slide.
With the loss of capital, the U.S.
loans stopped, crippling the
European economy.
Banks around the world failed,
industrial production dropped by
a third, unemployment rose to
the millions across Europe and
the U.S.
The Great Depression



Governments attempted to help, but most
policies were ineffective in reducing
unemployment or promoting production.
The failures of the democracies to deal
with these problems gave fascism and
communism a new voice.
Industrial production in the Soviet Union
rose during the period.
Democracy on the Run…



The democracies of Western Europe did
little to combat the rise of totalitarian
government in central and eastern Europe.
Political fragmentation and economic
stagnation forces these nations to look
inward.
Authoritarians in these nations and across
the globe were emboldened by the
situation.
France



Economic problems (similar to Germany)
Death, devastation, and debt of WWI
created economic chaos and political
unrest
Throughout the 1920s, the gov’ (multiparty system) dominated by the parties on
the right (conservatives), which supported
status quo and had backing of business,
army, and Church.
France


1926, Raymond Poincaré
recalled to office while
prime minister Briand
replaced but remained
minister of foreign affairs.
Gov’t slashed spending and
raised taxes, restoring
confidence in the economy.
Britain




Wartime trend toward greater social equality
continued, helping maintain social harmony.
Representation of the Peoples Act (1928):
women over 21 gained the right to vote.
(Representation of Peoples Act of 1918 had
given women over 30 the right to vote).
Unemployment was Britain's biggest problem in
1920s: about 12%
Did not recover from economic losses suffered
during WWI
Britain



1926, General Strike: support of miners who
feared a dramatic drop in their low wages swept
the country.
Gov’t outlawed such labor actions in 1927
Gov’t provided unemployment benefits of equal
size to the unemployed and supplemented those
payments with subsidized housing (200,000
units), medical aid, and increased old-age
pensions.
Britain




Labour party rose as a champion
of the working classes and of
greater social equality and took
power briefly (9 months); led by
Ramsay MacDonald
Came to replace Liberal Party as
main opposition to conservatives.
Conservatives under Stanley
Baldwin (1867-1947) ruled
Britain between 1924 and 1929.
Showed the same compromising
spirit on social issues: female
suffrage, expanded pensions to
widows, orphans and the aged.
The Irish Question




After Easter Rebellion (1916) the extremist
Sinn Fein faction gained prominence in Ireland.
Prompted a civil war between the Irish
Republican Army (IRA) and the Black and
Tan, England’s special occupation forces there.
· October 1921, London created the Irish Free
State, from which Ulster withdrew, as part of the
British Commonwealth (Northern Ireland)
In 1922, Britain granted southern, Catholic
Ireland full autonomy after failing to suppress a
bitter guerrilla war.
The Depression



Shattered the fragile optimism of political
leaders in the late 1920s
Causes: Long-term problems with the U.S.
economy: weak international economy,
overproduction, unstable banking, certain weak
industries, 1/2 of all Americans lived below
poverty line.
Stock Market Crash (1929) may have
triggered U.S. depression that spread world wide
The Depression






Impact on Europe:
Decline of production occurred in every country (except
Russia with its command economy).
Mass unemployment resulted: Germany hit hardest
(43%); Britain 18%, U.S. 25%
In 1931, Britain went off the gold standard; 20 other
countries followed suit
1930, U.S. instituted extremely high tariff which resulted
in retaliation by 23 other countries.
New York bankers began recalling loans made to
Germany and other European countries, thus
exacerbating Europe’s economic crisis.
Economic Recovery




Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" in
U.S. sought to reform capitalism with
increased gov't intervention in the
economy
Influenced certain European countries
Keynesian approach (developed by
John Maynard Keynes) used after 1938
to permanently prop up the economy
through public works programs and
subsidies.
Scandinavia's response to depression
was most successful under socialist
gov't
British Recovery




Orthodox economic theory followed after 1929:
went off gold-standard, reorganized industry,
increased tariffs, reformed finances, cut gov’t
spending, balanced budget (although
unemployed workers received barely enough
welfare to live on)
Economy recovered considerably after 1932.
Years after 1932 actually better than in the
1920s.
Like the U.S. Britain came out permanently from
depression due to rearmament for WWII
French Recovery



Felt impact of depression later as
it wasn't as highly industrialized
as Britain, Germany & US
The depression increased class
tensions and gave birth to a
radical right that supported gov’t
reorganization along fascist lines.
Popular Front: Threat of
fascism prompted coalition of
republicans, socialists,
communists and radicals; led by
Leon Blum
French Recovery




“French New Deal”: Inspired by US New Deal,
encouraged union movement and launched farreaching program of social reform, complete
with paid vacations and a 40-hr work week.
Failed due to high inflation and agitation from
fascists and frightened conservatives in the
Senate.
French divisions resulting from Spanish Civil War
destroyed Popular Front in 1936
France remained divided as Germany continued
its rearmament in late 1930s
The Spanish Civil War




Spanish Civil War, 1936:
Mussolini and Hitler use conflict as
a testing ground for their military
forces: Italy's army; Germany's
airforce -- Luftwaffe
Fascism prevails under Francisco
Franco; also known as Falangists
(or Royalists)
League ineffective in helping
republicans (Loyalists) against
Franco.
Rome-Berlin Axis formed
("Fascintern"): an alliance between
fascist Italy and Germany
A Culture of Uncertainty



Trends that had begun in the pre-war
years continued after World War I
The culture of progress what replaced
with a culture of uncertainty, irrationalism
and the surreal.
In all areas of culture and the sciences,
the accepted values of the late 19th
century came into question.
Study of the Mind

Sigmund Freud



Emphasized the importance of
the unconscious mind in
determining human behavior.
Human behavior is largely
irrational.
Freud developed psychoanalysis
to treat patients neuroses
(behaviors caused by
suppression of unconscious
drives)
Study of the Mind

Carl Jung


Jung built upon Freud’s
ideas and applied them to
society as a whole.
Promoted the idea of
collective
unconsciousness that
influenced society as a
whole.
Literature

Britain

George Bernard Shaw


James Joyce


Sexually-explicit novels
Aldous Huxley


Science fiction
D.H. Lawrence


Stream of consciousness
H.G. Wells


Know for witty plays
Distopia
T.S. Eliot

Playwright who wrote about the
barrenness of modern life.
H.G. Wells
Literature

Germany

Thomas Mann


Franz Kafka


Works dealt with sickness
of modern civilization
Dealt with the alienation
of the modern man
Hermann Hesse

Also dealt with the themes
of isolation and alienation
Franz Kafka
Visual Arts

Cubism



Cubism explored the
limits of art
First fully “modern” art
style.
Pablo Picasso was its
originator and most
famous participant.
Picasso - Guernica
Visual Arts

Dada



Artistic movement that
put on noisy
exhibitions.
Showed the irrational
and complex nature of
modern life.
Focused on the absurd.
Visual Arts

Expressionism


Flourished in
Germany in the
years prior to World
War I
Emphasized the free
expression of
emotion in painting
Philosophy

Futurism



Movement centered in Italy but spread to the
rest of Europe.
Called the radical changes that focused the
remaking of society.
Pointed out irrationalism of modern society
and how it needed to be changed focusing on
the possibilities of technology.
Philosophy

Oswald Spengler


Looked at society as a
biological organism
that had its own life
cycles.
In The Decline of the
West he believed that
Europe was in its death
cycle.
Sciences

Albert Einstein



Developed the theories
of General and Special
Relativity.
Destroyed the
Newtonian world view.
Showed that the
universe was not as it
appeared.
Sciences

Max Planck



Developed the theories of
quantum physics.
Energy and matter are not
all that different.
Was incorporated into
Einstein’s theory of General
Relativity (E=mc2
Sciences

Werner Heisenberg



Developed the principle
of uncertainty.
The process of
observing matter
affects its speed and
position.
Confirmed the
uncertainty of the
universe.