Chapter Fourteen

Leadership

14-1a

Chapter Fourteen Outline

Trait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership

•Trait Theory •Behavioral Styles Theory

Situational Theories

•Fiedler’s Contingency Model •Path-Goal Theory •Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

14-1b

Chapter Fourteen Outline (continued)

From Transactional to Charismatic Leadership

•How Does Charismatic Leadership Transform Followers?

•Research and Managerial Implications

Additional Perspectives on Leadership

•The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model of Leadership •Substitutes for Leadership •Servant-Leadership •Superleadership

14-2a

Trait Theory

• •

Leadership Traits

: represent the personal characteristics that differentiate leaders from followers.

Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers vary by - intelligence - dominance - self-confidence - level of energy and activity - task-relevant knowledge Contemporary findings show that - people tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or she exhibits traits associated with intelligence, masculinity, and dominance - people want their leaders to be credible - credible leaders are honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent

14-2b

Trait Theory (continued)

•

Gender and leadership

- men and women were seen as displaying more task and social leadership, respectively - women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women - men and women were equally assertive - women executives, when rated by their peers, managers and direct reports, scored higher than their male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria

14-3

Behavioral Styles Theory

• • • Ohio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader behavior.

1. Consideration: followers creating mutual respect and trust with 2. Initiating Structure: organizing and defining what group members should be doing

University of Michigan Studies

centered identified two leadership styles that were similar to the Ohio State studies - one style was employee centered and the other was job

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid

leadership styles found by crossing concern for production and concern for people represents four • Research shows that there is not one best style of leadership. The effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation at hand.

14-5 Figure 14-1

Representation of Fiedler’s Contingency Model

Situational Control High Control Situations Moderate Control Situations Low Control Situations Leader-member relations Good Good Good Task Structure High High High Position Power Strong Weak Strong Good Poor Poor Poor Poor Low High High Low Low Weak Strong Strong Strong Weak I II III IV V VI VII VIII Situation Optimal Leadership Style Task Motivated Leadership Relationship Motivated Leadership Task Motivated Leadership

14-6 Figure 14-2

House’s Path-Goal Theory

Employee Characteristics

- Locus of control - Task ability - Need for achievement - Experience - Need for clarity

Leadership Styles

- Directive - Supportive - Participative - Achievement oriented

Employee Attitudes and Behavior

- Job satisfaction - Acceptance of leader - Motivation

Environmental Factors

- Employee’s task - Authority system - Work group

14-7 Figure 14-3 High

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

Leader Behavior

Participating S3 Share ideas and facilitate in decision making Selling S2 Explain decisions and provide opportunity for clarification

Low Low High R4

Delegating S4 Turn over responsibility for decisions and implementation Provide specific instructions and closely supervise performance

Task Behavior R3 Follower Readiness Moderate R2

Telling S1

High Low R1 Follower-Directed Leader-Directed

14-4 Behavior Listen Examine Assist

Skills and Best Practices: Tips for Improving Leader Effectiveness

Recommended Behaviors Intensely listen to what others have to say. Determine the true cause of performance problems.

Think through problems from all perspectives. Do not play favorites and find solutions that benefit everyone involved.

Help others to learn from mistakes and errors.

Develop Encourage Recognize Explain the rationale for decisions and implement fair policies and procedures.

Provide employees with the resources needed to do a job. Gently push people to advance into more demanding roles.

Praise people for their good work. Focus on the positive whenever possible.

Source: “CEO’s Need to Listen, Examine, Assist,” The Arizona Republic, April 22, 2001, p D2.

14-8a

Transactional versus Charismatic Leadership

•

Transactional Leadership

: focuses on the interpersonal interactions between managers and employees

Transactional Leaders

- use contingent rewards to motivate employees - exert corrective action only when employees fail to obtain performance goals

14-8b

Transactional versus Charismatic Leadership (continued)

• • 

Charismatic Leadership:

behavior that transforms employees to pursue organizational goals over self-interests emphasizes symbolic leader

Charismatic Leaders

- use visionary and inspirational messages - rely on non-verbal communication - appeal to ideological values - attempt to intellectually stimulate employees - display confidence in self and followers - set high performance expectations

For class discussion:

or managers?

Should a leader be both transactional and charismatic? Is charismatic leadership only critical for senior executives and not for entry level supervisors

14-9a Figure 14-4a

Individual and Organizational Characteristics •

Traits

•

Organizational Culture

Charismatic Model of Leadership

Leader behavior •Leader establishes a

vision

Effects on followers and work groups •Increased intrinsic

motivation, achievement orientation, and goal pursuit

Outcomes •Personal

commitment to leader and vision

14-9b Figure 14-4b

Charismatic Model of Leadership (cont)

Individual and Organizational Characteristics •

Traits

•

Organizational Culture

Leader behavior •Leader establishes

high performance expectations and displays confidence in him/herself and the collective ability to realize the vision

•Leader models the

desired values, traits, beliefs, and behaviors needed to realize the vision

Effects on followers and work groups Outcomes •Increased

identification with the leader and the collective interests of organizational members

•Self-sacrificial

behavior

•Increased cohesion

among workgroup members

•Organizational

commitment

•Increased self-

esteem, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interests in goal accomplishment

•Task

meaningfulness and satisfaction

•Increased role

modeling of charismatic leadership

•Increased

individual group, and organizational performance

14-10

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Model)

• • This model is based on the idea that one of two distinct types of leader-member exchange relationships evolve, and these exchanges are related to important work outcomes.

in-group exchange:

mutual trust, respect and liking

out-group exchange:

a partnership characterized by a partnership characterized by a lack of mutual trust, respect and liking Research supports this model

14-12

Substitutes for Leadership

• •

Substitutes for leadership

variables that can substitute for, neutralize, or enhance the effects of leadership.

represent situational Research shows that substitutes for leadership directly influence employee attitudes and performance.

14-13a Table 14-1a

Substitutes for Leadership

Relationship Oriented or Considerate Leader Behavior is Unnecessary Task-Oriented or Initiating Structure Leader Behavior is Unnecessary Characteristic Of the Subordinate 1. Ability, experience, training, knowledge 2. Need for Independence 3. “Professional” orientation 4. Indifference toward organizational rewards Of the Task 5. Unambiguous and Routine 6. Methodically invariant 7. Provides its own feedback concerning accomplishment 8. Intrinsically satisfying. X X X X X X X X X X X

14-13b Table 14-1b

Substitutes for Leadership (cont)

Characteristic Of the Organization 9. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and areas of responsibility) Relationship -Oriented or Considerate Leader Behavior is Unnecessary Task-Oriented or Initiating Structure Leader Behavior is Unnecessary X 10. Inflexibility (rigid, unbending rules and procedures) 11. Highly specified and active advisory and staff functions 12. Closely knit, cohesive work groups X X X X X X 13. Organizational rewards not with the leader’s control 14. Spatial distance between superior and X subordinate

Source: Adapted from S Kerr and J M Jermier, “Substitutes for Leadership:Their Meaning and Measurement,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, December 1978, pp 375-403

14-14

Servant and Superleadership

• • • Servant Leadership represents a philosophy in which leaders focus on increased service to others rather than to oneself.

A superleader is someone who leads others to lead themselves by developing employees’ self-management skills.

Superleaders attempt to increase employees’ feelings of personal control and intrinsic motivation.

14-15a Table 14-2a

1. Listening 2. Empathy 3. Healing 4. Awareness Characteristics of the Servant-Leader

Servant-leaders focus on listening to identify and clarify the needs and desires of a group.

Servant-leaders try to empathize with others’ feelings and emotion. An individual’s good intentions are assumed even when he or she performs poorly.

Servant-leaders strive to make themselves and others whole in the face of failure or suffering.

Servant-leaders are very self-aware or their strengths and limitations.

14-15b Table 14-15b

) Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued 5. Persuasion 6. Conceptualization

Servant-leaders rely more on persuasion than positional authority when making decisions and trying to influence others.

Servant-leaders take the time and effort to develop broader based conceptual thinking. Servant-leaders seek an appropriate balance between a short term, day-to-day focus and a long-term, conceptual orientation.

7. Foresight

Servant-leaders have the ability to foresee future outcomes associated with a current course of action or situation.

14-15c Table 14-2c

Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued) 8. Stewardship

9.

Commitment to the growth of people 10. Building Community

Servant-leaders assume that they are stewards of the people and resources they manage.

Servant-leaders are committed to people beyond their immediate work role. They commit to fostering an environment that encourages personal, professional, and spiritual growth.

Servant-leaders strive to create a sense of community both within and outside the work organization.