Transcript Chapter 4 Individuals in Schools: Motivation

Chapter 4
Individuals in Schools:
Motivation
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Individuals are motivated by their:
• Needs
• Beliefs
• Goals
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
I
Maslow’s Theory of Needs
Assumptions:
1.
Individual needs are universal and arranged in a hierarchy.
2.
Unfilled needs lead individuals to focus on those needs.
3.
Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs
become strong motivators.
Needs:
1.
Physiological Needs (Air, Food, Sleep, etc.)
2.
Safety and Security Needs (Protection against danger and threat)
3.
Belongingness Needs (Belonging to groups, having friends, etc.)
4.
Esteem Needs (Self-respect and the respect of others)
5.
Self-Actualization Needs (Being all you can be; finding potential)
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
–
Basic set of human needs arranged in a hierarchical
order
•
Level 1: Physiological Needs
•
Level 2: Safety and Security
•
Level 3: Belonging, Love, and Social Activities
•
Level 4: Esteem
•
Level 5: Self-actualization or self-fulfillment
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Needs
II
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory:
Two Types of Needs
Assumptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two separate factors, not opposites.
Factors that produce satisfaction are different from those that promote
dissatisfaction.
•Motivators are generally intrinsic factors such as achievement and the
work itself.
•Hygiene factors are generally extrinsic factors such as salary and
working conditions.
Motivators are higher level needs and tend to promote satisfaction.
Hygiene factors are lower level needs and tend to promote dissatisfaction
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Needs
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Hygienes
•Interpersonal relations (with subordinates)
•Interpersonal relations (with peers)
•Supervision (technical)
•Policy and administration
•Working conditions
•Personal life
Dissatisfaction
Motivators
•Achievement
•Recognition
•Work itself
•Responsibility
•Advancement
Satisfaction
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Needs
III McClelland’s Achievement-Need Theory
Assumptions:
1.
2.
The prospect of achievement motivates more than extrinsic rewards.
Motives are learned and when people learn to value achievement, it becomes a
strong motivator.
To instill motivation:
• Place people in situation where they can succeed.
• Emphasize setting reasonable and achievable goals.
• Get people to take responsibility for their actions.
• Provide clear and constructive feedback on performance.
3.
When achievement motivation is high, then individuals set high, but
achievable goals, value and use feedback, have a single-minded absorption
with task accomplishment.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Needs
IV Need for Autonomy
1.
Individuals have a need to have a choice in what they do and how they do it;
they need to be in charge of their own lives.
2.
The need for autonomy is a higher level need--likely above self-esteem and
below self actualization in Maslow’s hierarchy.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Beliefs
V Weiner’s Attribution Theory: Beliefs about Cause
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals naturally seek understandings of why thing happen the way they do.
2.
Individuals make causal connections, i.e., they create knowledge.
3.
Once knowledge is created, they use it to manage their behavior.
4.
The basic causes of achievement are ability, effort, difficulty of the task, and luck.
5.
Key questions:
• Causal: What are causes of outcomes?
• Locus: Is the cause internal (ability & effort) or external (difficulty & luck)?
• Stability: Is the cause fixed or does it change?
• Responsibility (Controllable): Can I control the cause?
6.
Maximize motivation by knowing what causes outcomes, knowing the cause is
internal and controllable, and knowing cause is amenable to change.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Beliefs
Beliefs continued
•
Ability
– Stable view
• Ability is uncontrollable and unable to change
• Set performance goals that protect their self-esteem
– Incremental view
• Ability is unstable but controllable
• Expanding reservoir of knowledge and skills
• Hard work and persistence can pay off
• Set performance goals to gauge progress
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Beliefs
VI Greenberg’s Equity Theory: Beliefs about
Fairness
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals care about being treated fairly.
2.
People make social comparisons regarding fair and equitable
treatment.
3.
Perceived inequity tends to reduce motivation.
4.
Individuals attempt to reduce feelings of inequity by:
• They try to get increased benefits--get a raise.
• They try to leave--quit and find another job.
• They reduce their inputs--expend less effort on the job.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Principles of Organizational Justice
Equity Principle
--Rewards should be proportional to contributions.
Perception Principle
--Individual perceptions of fairness define justice.
The Voice Principle
--Participation in decision enhances fairness.
Interpersonal Justice Principle
--Dignified and respectful treatment promotes fairness
Consistency Principle
--Consistently fair behavior promotes a sense of justice
Egalitarian Principle
--Self-interest should be subordinated to good of whole
Correction Principle
--Faulty decisions should be quickly corrected.
Accuracy Principle
--Decisions should be anchored in accurate information
Representative Principle
--Decisions should represent those concerned.
Ethical Principle
--Existing moral & ethical standards should prevail.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Beliefs
VII Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (Beliefs about
Outcomes)
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals make conscious decisions about their behavior.
2.
People evaluate subjectively the expected value of outcomes.
3.
Forces in the individual and environment combine to determine
individual values and attitudes.
4.
Motivation is a function of the interaction of expectancy,
instrumentality, and valence.
Expectancy: Can I perform the task?
Instrumentality: If I succeed what are the consequences?
Valence: How strongly do I value the consequences?
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Beliefs
Expectancy
Belief that I can
accomplish
the task
Instrumentality
Belief that good
performance will
be noticed and
rewarded
Force of
Motivation
According to expectancy theory, work
motivation is strongly influenced by the
interaction of three factors: expectancy,
instrumentality, and valence.
Valence
An assessment of
the attractiveness
or value of
the rewards
M = f (E x I x V)
Expectancy Theory
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Beliefs
VIII
Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory: Beliefs
about Capacity
Assumptions:
1.
Individuals make conscious decisions about their behavior.
2.
The extent to which people believe that they have the capacity to execute a
course of action that is required to succeed is their self-efficacy, their self
efficacy, motivates behavior.
3.
Self-efficacy affects individual choice:
Choose activities in which you will succeed and avoid those in which you
believe you will fail.
4.
Strong self-efficacy increases effort at the task.
5.
Strong self-efficacy increases persistence.
6.
Strong self-efficacy increases resilience.
7.
Sources of strong self-efficacy:
• Mastery Experiences
• Modeling (Vicarious experiences)
• Verbal Persuasion
• Physiological State
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
A Model of Teacher Efficacy
Analysis of the
Teaching Task
Sources of Efficacy
•Physiological Cues
•Verbal Persuasion
•Vicarious Experience
(Modeling)
•Mastery Experience
Teacher
Efficacy
Cognitive
Processing
Assessment of
Teaching
Competence
Consequences of
Teacher Efficacy
Performance
•Effort
•Persistence
•Success
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Building Self-Efficacy in Schools
• Administrators should try to orchestrate the following:
–
Secure instructional time and resources for teachers to plan, collaborate, and research, to build
MASTERY EXPERIENCES.
–
Allow teachers to have access to models, in the form of conferences, workshops, visitations, etc., for
cultivation of VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES.
–
Foster emphasis on professionalism and reflective teaching, and reward those who collaborate and
share feedback, to increase SOCIAL PERSUASION.
–
Attend to teachers’ affective states and provide encouragement during times of frustration. Frame
performance as a function of acquired skill rather than inherent capability.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Goals
IX Locke’s Goal Theory
Assumptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
If goals are accepted by individuals, they are strong motivators.
Why?
• Goals focus attention.
• Goals mobilize efforts.
• Goals enhance persistence.
• Goals promote the development of strategies for success.
Specific goals are generally more effective than general goals.
Difficult, but attainable goals are more effective than easy ones.
To be effective, goals must be embraced by individual.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Theories of Motivation: Goal Setting
Characteristics of
Effective Goals
•Specific
•Challenging
•Attainable
•Embraced
Goal Mechanisms
•Focus attention
•Mobilize effort
•Enhance persistence
•Develop specific task
strategies
Feedback
Actual versus Desired Behavior
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Performance
Theories of Motivation
X Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation comes from such factors as interest and
curiosity in the task itself.
Extrinsic motivation comes from incentives and disincentives to
act, for example, rewards and punishments.
The key difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is
the reason for acting--internal (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic).
The dichotomy between the two, however, is a bit too simple
because what starts as extrinsic motivation (studying to get good
grades) may become intrinsic as the individual becomes curious
about the learning at hand.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Summary & Review
Needs Theory
Suggest that people work hard when:
Lower-order needs are met—physiological, safety, and belongingness needs.
Higher-order needs present the challenge—esteem and self-actualization needs.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Suggests that:
Unmet lower-level needs produce dissatisfaction with the job.
Gratified higher-level needs produce job satisfaction.
Goal-Setting Theory
Suggests that people work hard when:
They have realistic, specific, and challenging goals.
They are committed to the goals.
They receive feedback about progress toward the goals.
Attribution Theory
Suggests that people work hard when they believe that causes for success are:
Internal—due to ability and effort.
Not fixed—effort, for example, can be varied from one situation to another.
Controllable—causes can be controlled by hard work, using proper strategy, etc.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Summary & Review
Equity Theory
Suggests that people work hard when they have been fairly treated and:
They have been given the rewards they deserve.
The rewards have been allocated fairly.
They have been treated with respect and courtesy.
Expectancy Theory
Suggests that people work hard when:
They believe extra effort will improve performance.
Good performance will be noticed and rewarded.
The rewards are valued.
Self-Efficacy Theory
Suggests that people work hard when:
They believe they have the capabilities to be successful.
They believe that the task is not too difficult.
They have had success at completing their tasks.
They have good models of success.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011
Practical Imperatives
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Celebrate the successes of your faculty: Positive reinforcement is a strong motivator.
Articulate clear, specific, and achievable goals: They provide focused targets for
persistent effort.
Nurture an incremental view of intelligence: It enhances achievement.
Be fair in both deciding and distributing school resources: Participants expect to be
treated fairly.
Equip teachers with skills and resources needed to succeed: Teachers work smarter
when they have the right tools.
Develop a sense of efficacy in teachers and students: Both increase academic
achievement.
Provide teachers with constructive feedback in their quest for goal achievement;
Verbal persuasion increases perseverance.
Create teacher situations that lead to successful experiences: Mastery experiences
are the most valuable source of teacher self-efficacy.
Provide teachers with models of successful practice: Such models are strong
determinants of self-efficacy.
Encourage teachers to accept responsibility for achievement: Responsibility
produces commitment, perseverance, and success.
© Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011