Transcript Practical Imperatives - Wayne K. Hoy

Chapter 12
Communication in Schools
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Four Caveats for Educational Administrators
• Communication is difficult to isolate from other
administrative processes.
• Not all school problems involve
miscommunication.
• Communication reveals, hides, and eliminates
problems.
• Communication is a process that evokes action
but is far from the substance of good
administration.
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Key Terms
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Communication – sharing ideas or attitudes in ways that produce a degree of
understanding between two or more people.
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Message – the verbal or non-verbal cues or symbols that each communicator conveys.
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Channel – the vehicle, medium, or form in which a message travels.
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Sender – the person or generalized source sending a message
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Receiver – the destination of the message or the individual or deciphers it.
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Transmission – the actual sending and receiving of messages through designated
channels or media.
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Encoding – using cognitive structures and processes to convert the intended message
into symbolic form by the sender.
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Decoding – using cognitive structures and processes to retranslate the message by the
receiver.
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Feedback – the message sent in response to the initial message; information that enables
corrections (Ch. 1).
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Communication effects – the outcomes of the message exchange process.
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
General Model of Communication
Sender
(source,
speaker,
communicator)
Encoding
Message
In Channel
Feedback
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Receiver
Decoding
(reader,
listener,
communicator)
Communication in Schools
One-way communication
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Unilateral - initiated by the sender and terminated by the receiver
– Common examples in schools
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Classroom lecture
Exhortation by the principal
PA announcements
Administrative directive
– Advantages
• Emphasizes the skills of the sender and encourages
administrators and teachers to think through, accurately
articulate, and provide clarity to their ideas
• Imply strong linkages between communication behavior and
action
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Two-way communication
• Reciprocal – all participants in the process initiate and receive messages
– Common forms in schools
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Conversation
Inquiry
Debate
Instruction (Socratic Method)
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Individual Communication Competence
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Sending Skills
– Use appropriate direct language
• Avoid jargon and complex concepts
– Information must be clear and complete
• Build on or reorganize receiver’s cognitive schema
– Minimize noise from the physical or psychological
environment
– Use multiple and appropriate channels of media
– Use face-to-face communication and redundancy when
communicating complex messages
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Public Speaking: Some Principles
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Be confident: Avoid hesitant and uncertain speech; it communicates
doubt.
Be direct: Get to the point without excuses.
Speak quickly: A rapid pace of speech is functional.
Pronounce your consonants: Pronunciation is important in conveying
status, respect, and confidence.
Use sophisticated speech: Refined vocabulary communicates status.
Use Standard English: Slang and street language undermine respect,
status, as well as the message.
Speak up: Talking is an expectation of authority figures; in fact, it is a
necessary condition for status.
Dominate: Be aggressive in your speech; your goal should be to
communicate.
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Individual Communication Competence
• Receiving Skills (Listening Skills)
– Attending
• Eye contact, receptive body language, focus
– Questioning
– Encouraging
• Verbal and non-verbal cues
– Paraphrasing
– Reflecting feeling
– Summarizing
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Individual Communication Competence
• Feedback Skills- Sending and receiving skills that convey knowledge of
results or effects of previous communications and behaviors.
– Can be verbal or non-verbal
• Asking questioning, describing behavior, paraphrasing
– Information should be helpful to the recipient
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Specific rather than general
Recent rather than old
Directed toward behavior the person could change
Timely, the more immediate the better
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Channels of Communication
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Verbal symbols
– Human speech – direct, face to face conversation or electronic exchanges via
telephone, radio, television, video conferencing
– Written media – memos, letters, faxes, electronic mail and bulletin boards,
instant messaging, newspapers.
Non-verbal symbols
– Body language or gestures – facial expressions, posture, hand and arm
movements
– Physical items or artifacts with symbolic value – office furnishings, clothing,
and jewelry
– Space – Territoriality and personal space
– Touching and hugging
– Time
– Intonation, accents, pitch, intensity, rate of speech
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Sources in Communication Processes: Senders
and Receivers
• Credibility
– Believability, identity and reputation of the sender
• Sender’s expertness and trustworthiness
• Trust and confidence the receiver has in the words and actions of the
sender
• Cognitive Capacities
– Psychological characteristics limit individual communication
• Communication skills
• Knowledge of subject
• Personality
• Motivation factors (attitudes, values, interests, expectations)
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Communicating in Context
• Noise - Contextual, physical, cultural, environmental distractions that
interfere with the communication process
– Examples in schools
• Closed organizational climates
• Punishment-centered bureaucratic structures
• Cultural or gender differences
• Authoritarian leadership
• Teacher militancy
• Demographic prejudice
• Outdated or obscure technology
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Information
Does the language or symbols convey the information?
Can it be understood by both sender and receiver?
What is the content and effect of the communication?
Communicators
Who is speaking to whom?
What roles do they occupy?
Media
What methods/media are being used?
Context
What is the context in which the communication is taking
place?
What factors are creating noise that might block or distort
the message?
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Organizational Perspectives of Communication
Communication networks - methods , vehicles, or forms a message travels
in organizations.
– Formal Channels
• Methods sanctioned by the organization
• Related to organizational goals
– Informal Channels
• Grapevines
– Directionally vertical or horizontal
– One or Two-way
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Communication in Schools
Types of roles in communication networks
Person 1
Person 2
Person A
Person 4
Person 3
Person A in “Star” Role
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Types of roles in communication networks
Person 1
Person 2
Isolate
Person B
Person 4
Person 3
Person A in “Isolate” Role
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Types of roles in communication networks
Person 1
Group I
Group II
Person 2
Person A
Person 4
Person 3
Person A in “Bridge” Role
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Types of roles in communication networks
Person A
Group I
Group II
Person A in “Liaison” Role
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Formal communication networks
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Channels of communication must be known
Channels must link every member of the organization
Lines of communication must be a direct and short as possible
The complete network of communication is typically used
Every communication is authenticated as being from the correct person
occupying the position and within his or her authority to issue the message
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Three characteristics of schools critical to formal
communication networks
– Centralization
The degree to which authority is not delegated but concentrated in a single
source in an organization
– Shape
The number of hierarchical levels or “tallness v. flatness” of the
organization
– Technology
As communication technology becomes more sophisticated, its use will
dramatically alter communication in both formal and informal networks
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Informal communication networks
Advantages of “the grapevine”
– Active informal networks are indicative of a school’s
culture and provide vital feedback to leaders
– Informal channels may satisfy social or affiliation
needs not met by formal channels
– Grapevines fill an information void and provide outlets
when formal information channels are clogged
– Informal networks provide meaning for activities
within the school
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Directional “chain of command”
Five types of communication from superior to
subordinate
(Downward)
• Instructions about specific tasks
• Rationale about why the task needs to be done and how it
relates to other tasks
• Information about organizational procedures and practices
• Feedback about the performance levels of individuals
• Information regarding the organization’s goals
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Communication in Schools
Directional “chain of command”
Four types of communication from lower to upper
levels of hierarchy (Upward)
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Routine operational messages
Reports on problems
Suggestions for improvement
Information on how subordinates feel about each other
and the job
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Practical Imperatives
• Use multiple communication strategies to enhance understanding: Not
everyone learns the same way.
• Ensure that verbal and nonverbal communications are consistent: Limit
communication confusion.
• Develop ways to verify understandings of communications:
Communicating is not the same as understanding.
• Use the grapevine to assess potential reactions to communications:
Informal communication is usually more authentic than formal
communication.
• Encourage questions and restatements of messages to reduce ambiguity:
Clarity comes from persistence and redundancy.
• Check for understanding: Use feedback techniques to ensure that all
parties have the same understanding.
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011
Practical Imperatives
• Follow oral communications with written summaries of understanding:
Clarity and redundancy avoid misunderstandings.
• Complement the formal communication network with the informal:
Informal networks are more authentic.
• Use richer media (e.g. one-to-one interactions) as content becomes more
complex and ambiguous: Complexity requires clarity.
• Clarify your communication so as to reduce noise (e. g. extraneous
information): Clarity is crucial to understanding.
• Enhance you repertoire of communication skills and strategies: Different
people and situations require a variety of communication strategies.
W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011