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Chapter 4: Individuals in Schools Needs, Goals, and Beliefs Theories of Motivation Joshua Wahl, Jared Norman, Michael Hanson Question / Writing: Needs What are the different needs of students, staff, and administration that you work with? ◦ rank the needs as you imagine they would. ◦ share out and discuss Needs… … are an internal state of disequilibrium that cause individuals to pursue certain courses of action in order to regain internal equilibrium. (Edwin A. Lock 1991) Needs, tension, & disequilibrium Fulfillment of needs, & reduction of disequilibrium Needs are requirements for an organisms survival and well being. Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow 1970) Developed a needs scale through his experiences as a clinical psychologist and not from systematic research. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs More Potent Less Potent Needs as Motivators Higher level needs become activated as lower needs are met. The sequence > increased satisfaction > decreased importance……. repeats itself until highest level is met. So a completely satisfied need is not a motivator, hence, the concept of gratification is as important as that of deprivation. Motivation-Hygiene Theory (Herzberg 1982) Needs and the worker satisfaction Motivators tend to produce satisfaction and hygiene factors produce dissatisfaction; Are not opposites but rather two separate dimensions. Achievement Theory (David McClelland 1961,65,85) Individuals have the need to accomplish hard tasks, to overcome difficulties and obstructions, and to excel. Individuals who are high in achievement… ◦ … assume personal responsibility for performing a task or solving a problem. ◦ … set moderately difficult goals ◦ … have a strong desire for performance feedback Attempts to instill achievement motivation should be characterized by… ◦ … establishing situations in which individuals can succeed ◦ … accepting personal responsibility for performance ◦ … providing clear feedback on performance Need for Autonomy Need for autonomy is the desire to have choice in what we do and how we do it. (Deci & Ryan1985, 91, 2000) People seek to be in charge of their behavior and struggle against external pressures. (Richard deCharm 1976, 83) 2 categories of individuals: (metaphor) ◦ Origins- perceive themselves as the origin or source of their own intentions to act. ◦ Pawns- see themselves in a game controlled by other and powerless to determine own actions. Question / Writing: Goals What is the goal of your organization? What are your personal goals? ◦ Share out and discuss ◦ Were they aligned? Attainable? Why goals? Latham and Baldes (1975) / Baron (1998): Lumber camp study Goal Setting Theory suggests that when an individual accepts specific, realistic, and challenging goals, motivation will be strong, especially if feedback about progress is forthcoming. Goals - Defined Goal = A future state than an individual is striving to attain. The aims or outcomes that one would like to achieve. Why? ◦ helps eliminate the discrepancy between “where you are” and “where you want to be”. How? ◦ can be individual or shared or assigned 2 Key Dimensions to goals (Locke and Latham 1990) Content & Intensity Content: the object or result being sought ◦ specific: losing 10 pounds in 2 months, using 2 new strategies in your next lesson ◦ abstract: improving achievement, increasing self-esteem ◦ also varies in time, difficulty, and number Intensity: effort required to form the goal, the importance assigned to the goal, and the commitment to the goal ◦ Commitment is the degree to which the goal is considered important will determine effort in the face of setbacks and obstacles commitment is enhanced by convincing that goal is possible and appropriate ***Goals don't work if there is no commitment*** Goal Setting Theory When do they improve motivation and performance? Specific Challenging Attainable Individuals must be committed to the goals Goal: Motivation and Influence intention to achieve a goal is a primary motivating force for behavior direct both mental and physical actions 4 Goal Mechanism: 1. 2. 3. 4. increase attention to immediate task increase effort expended on activities increase persistence encourage development of specific task strategies Feedback Helps individuals evaluate their progress ◦ if fallen short then increase efforts ◦ highlights accomplishment then improve selfconfidence, analytic thinking, and performance Mysteries of Goal Theory Difficult goals, if accepted, result in higher levels of performance than easy ones Specific goals, produce higher levels of performance than vague, or no goals ◦ quantity over quality Individual vs Shared vs Assigned Goals are all the same. Goal criteria Did your goals (personal or organizational) meet the criteria we just covered? Specific Challenging Attainable Individuals must be committed to the goals Share out with your peers Discussion Do you believe that a person’s abilities are fixed and stable? Where does your sphere of control end your educational organization? How would you react if you were treated unfairly by your boss? How can you increase the confidence of a student? In the end motivation comes down to one thing… SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTION Beliefs Beliefs are general understandings about the world… …are often associated with an ideal image that contrasts the existing state… … and are often linked to remembered events. Pivotal beliefs that influence behavior Causality Consequences Control Attribution Theory Bernard Weiner People naturally search for understanding about why events happen What are the causes of the outcome? 1. Is the cause internal (ability, effort) or external (task difficulty, luck)? 2. Are the causes fixed or changing? 3. Can I control the causes? Highly motivated people know the causes, the causes are internal, the causes can be changed, and the causes are under their control Beliefs about Ability Stable View Ability is fixed, cannot be changed Some have more than others Seek situation where they look good to protect esteem To work hard and fail is devastating Poor Motivators Incremental View Ability is unstable and controllable Hard work pays off Not threatened by failure Accept challenge to work harder Effective Motivators Equity Theory Greenberg, 1993, Tyler, 1994 Concerns fairness of resource allocation - (procedural justice) ◦ Fairness determined by social comparison We select those similar to us ◦ Compare ratios of input to output ◦ More sensitive to receiving less than deserving rather than more Motivation declines drastically if inequity is believed to occur Expectancy Theory Vroom, 1964 Force of Motivation Expectancy Belief that I can accomplish the task M = f (E x I x V) Instrumentality Valence Belief that good performance will be noticed and rewarded Assessment of the attractiveness or value of rewards Highly centralized and stratified schools are staffed with teachers with low forces of expectancy motivation (Herrick, 1973) Theory predicts job satisfaction more than performance Self-Efficacy Theory Self-Efficacy: a person’s judgment about his or her capability to organize and execute a course of action that is required to attain a certain level of performance Bandura, 1986 The stronger people believe in their capabilities the greater and more persistent their efforts Self-Efficacy Development includes… 1. 2. 3. 4. Mastery Experience – actual experience with task Modeling and Vicarious Experience – learn by watching Verbal Persuasion – talk people into believing Physiological state – excitement, fear, stress, mood Theory into Practice Assume you are a principal in a school and you have hired a talented young teacher. She is anxious and has low confidence about her ability to get kids to learn. What do you do? Conclusion, Summary, Recap, Review, Closure, Synopsis, etc. Motivation and effort play a fundamental role in achievement To increase these do the following… ◦ Identify needs ◦ Set realistic goals ◦ Believe you can do it CASE STUDY