The Age of Nationalism, 1850-1914

Aim:

Why did nationalism emerge as such a powerful political force in the later half of the 19 th century, and what role did it play in European politics?

Napoleon III in France

• The 2 nd Republic under Louis Napoleon- vision of national unity and social progress      Extension of universal male suffrage gave LN unprecedented support from middle and urban worker classes Authoritative ruler could preserve order from socialist forces of 48’ revolutions Belief that strong leader needed to preserve economic well being of citizens, as well as protect them from bureaucratic govt thru direct democracy 1851- Dissolved French Assembly and seized power in coup d’etat due to no constitutional provision making 2 terms possible 92% approval thru plebiscite for 10 year term  Elected as hereditary emperor in 1852 • Why were French people so willing to support Louis Napoleon?

Louis Napoleon’s 2

nd

Empire (1852-1870)

• Louis Napoleon self proclaimed Emperor Napoleon III • Goal: Economic progress = political and social stability  Investment banks & RR construction  Public works programs of Paris  Middle class prospered and unemployment dwindled  Working class support due to better living conditions and formal recognition of labor unions

Louis Napoleon’s 2

nd

Empire (1852-1870)

• Political Actions:  Restricted Assembly- members voted by universal male suffrage every 6 years  1860’s- decline in political power due to international pressures and loss of middle class liberal support; granted liberal reforms to Assembly  1869- granted new constitution- dual govt. made up of parliament and hereditary emperor • Was France under Napoleon III becoming more authoritative or democratic?

Not the 1

st

, Not the 2

nd

, but the 3

rd

Republic for France!!

• Franco-Prussian war reopened class antagonisms and created political upheaval in 1871  France declared 3 rd Napoleon Republic in midst of war and flight of Louis • Due to surrender of Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia, Liberals formed the Paris Commune to challenge National Assembly for govt control  National Assembly, led by Adolphe Thiers, crushed uprising by sending troops into Paris  Civil War resulted in death of Commune, as well as 20k French

Growth of French Nationalism

• Why did French Nationalism grow after bloody events of 1871?

 3 rd Republic demonstrated social and political conservatism least divisive form of govt.

 Growth of moderate Republican leaders- led by Leon Gambetta, established absolute parliamentary supremacy over President  Republicanism preserved thru legalization of trade unions, imperial conquest, public education (secular republicanism) • The Dreyfus Affair (1901-1905)  Jewish captain wrongfully accused and convicted of treason  Affair split France b/w conservative and liberal forces  Although declared innocent, paved they way toward greater separation of church and state within govt and society Nationalism

Italian Nationalism

• Never united before 1850, reorganized by Congress of Vienna in 1815- broken into 4 Kingdoms • Question of Nationalism? Possible approaches:  Radical approach by Giuseppe Mazzini- democratic republic based upon universal male suffrage  Federation by Vincenzo Gioberti- progressive pope to serve as president  Autocratic kingdom inspired by Kingdom of Sardinia • Victor Emanuel- Monarch of Sardinia- sought to preserve liberal constitution of 1848 from Austrian Empire  Emanuel and Constitution perceived as possible solution to unification  RCC would stand vehemently opposed to unification due to liberal concepts

Count Camilio Benso di Cavour & Italian Unification

• Cavour Symbolized strong bond b/w aristocracy and middle class • Goal: unification of N and C Italy  Need to drive out Austria from N Italy led to secret Alliance w/France  War with Austria led to annexation of Lombardy to Sardinia, but fell short of Northern unification  Central Italy aligned with Sardinia

Giuseppe Garibaldi & Italian Unification

• Liberal Nationalist and leader of the Red Shirts  Overran Sicily and threatened papacy in Rome  Political competition b/w Cavour and Garibaldi • Garibaldi and Cavour met in Naples- symbolized unification of Northern and Southern Italy • Kingdom of Italy evolved into parliamentary monarch under Victor Emanuel  Suffrage limited to propertied males  Italy united theoretically, yet deep divisions due to industrial north and agrarian south

Germany before Otto von Bismarck

• German politics characterized by tension and stalemate following Frankfurt Assembly • Growth of German industry under customs union (Zollverein)  German states growing rich, led by Prussia- but Austria excluded  Leading factor moving towards national unification • William I of Prussia- believed in merits of larger army • Growth of Prussian parliament following 1848 Rev  Tried to establish de-militarized Prussia   Parliament held real political power Military to answer to parliament • William I appointed Otto von Bismarck to help transform Prussia into military state to combat power of parliament

The Emergence of Bismarck in Prussian Politics

• Bismarck emerged as most influential German leader b/w Luther and Hitler • Master politician- pragmatic • Declare that govt would rule w/o parliamentary consent  “The great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and resolutions…that was the blunder of 1848…but by

BLOOD & IRON”

 Opposition to plans demonstrated thru public support for liberal in parliament

The Austro-Prussian War (1866)

• Area of Schleswig-Holstein- Danish attempt to bring under control sparked war with Prussian Austrian forces  Bismarck quick to turn against Austria at conclusion of war to kick out of Northern German affairs • 7 week war  Utilization of RR’s and heavy artillery  German Confederation dissolved  Austria withdrew from German affairs  Prussian expansion successful

Bismarck and Parliament

• Bismarck’s belief about nationalism- not dangerous ideology that challenged conservative rule, but one that could be used for unification and prosperity of ALL classes • New Constitution drafted following war with Austria for new North German Confederation  Each state retained local govt.

 King of Prussia (Wilhelm I) became president of confederation    Chancellor Bismarck only responsible to president Both President and Chancellor controlled army and foreign affairs Creation of bicameral legislature, with lower house elected by universal male suffrage (eliminate power & influence of middle class)   Liberals of legislature fully backed Bismarck- dreams of unification Societal value shift from middle class liberals to aristocratic Prussian officer

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)

• • • • Final step towards German unification was eliminating French threat and driving remaining German states into Prussian control During course of War, Louis Napoleon captured and 3 rd Republic proclaimed!!!

Prussian victory led to proclamation of Wilhelm I as Emperor of Germany (2 nd Reich)  Prussian Constitution applied to all Germany Terms of Peace Treaty with France  France to pay $5 billion indemnity  France to ceded eastern province of Alsace and Lorraine

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)

• Impact of War:  Surge in German nationalism  Illustration of Social Darwinism  Prussia emerged as most powerful state in Europe  “New Conservatism”- alignment of King and propertied classes, with growing support from working classes  German Unification

The German Empire (1870-1914)

• German Empire = union of Prussia and 24 states • National govt headed by Chancellor Bismarck, and representative assembly thru Reichstag   Bismarck’s Kulturkampf- “struggle for civilization” launched against RCC • 1873 Depression- hurt German agricultural economy with importation of cheap grain from US and Russia  Calls for economic nationalism/economic protectionism = protective tariff • Bismarck outlawed German socialist parties revolutionary force that transcended nation-state Sought to win over working classes thru social security reforms  However, socialism growing thru Marxian Social Democratic Party

Wilhelm II and the Fall of Bismarck

• Wilhelm II succeeded to become emperor in 1890  Opposed Bismarck’s policy of outlawing German socialists and forced him to resign!!!

 “Dropping the Pilot” • Govt. legalized socialist political parties and foreign policy shifted  By 1912- German Socialist Party became majority in Reichstag  German socialists were ardent nationalists and liberal reformers- but opposed expansionism and increased military spending

“Dropping the Pilot”

Austro-Hungarian Empire

• Empire divided in 2 by war with Prussia- Dual Monarchy- Austrian Empire and Hungarian (Magyars) Empire • Ethnic diversity became political Achilles heal of Austrian politics   Minority German population troubled by language differences and education • Hungarian politics just as difficult Hungarian minority eligible to vote  Croatians and Romanians alienated  Nationalism worked to weaken and destroy the state, not enhance

European Politics after 1870

• Nation building and unification complete by “blood and iron” approach • National state dominated politics there after ward  Emergence of mass politics and political parties  Growing mass loyalty towards the nation state (nationalism) • Reasons for growing support of masses:  Extension of universal male suffrage   Women suffrage Political parties represented masses • The “Golden Rule” for political stability- domestic or international crisis could divert attention and prevent internal strife/revolution/demands for reforms

Modernization of Russia

• • • 19 th century Russia characterized by multinational population, thus self determination was perceived as subversive ideology Autocratic rule still firmly in place Russia’s greatest challenge MODERNIZATION- allow Russia to compete with fellow European nations

Russia in the 19

th

Century

• 1850’s Russia- poor agrarian society (90%)  Little industrial development  Serfdom still firmly entrenched- hereditary subjugation  Serfdom emerged as great political issue of 1840’s

The Crimean War (1853-56)

• • • • Cause – dispute with France over who should protect Christian shrines in Ottoman Empire Fighting- concentrated in Crimean peninsula of Black Sea Russia suffered humiliating defeat due to inability to adequately supply army due to poor transportation, lack of industry, and poor military development Defeat illustrated inferiority of Russian economy, military, and govt organization  Fear of massive peasant/serf revolt sparked need for reforms

Russia’s “Great Reforms”

• • • • Tsar Alexander II abolishes serfdom in 1861  Peasant villages became collectives  Limited mobility and progress Establishment of zemstvo- new local assemblies that deal with local problems  Liberal hopes of evolution towards representative assembly met with disappointment Judicial reforms included equality before the law and independent courts Censorship declined, education liberalized

Russia Industrializes

• Russian modernization = economic development • Industry and transportation #1  Govt subsidies encouraged construction  RR development aided agrarian Russia- grain economy  Development of factories at St. Petersburg and Moscow • Industrial development = military development  Desire for Imperial expansion accompanied industrialization Chinese sphere of influence • Industrialization also fostered growth of Marxism among working classes

Russia After Alexander II

• Tsar Alexander II assassinated in 1881, bringing reform era to and end  Succeeded by Reactionary Tsar Alexander III- sought to extend economic modernization, but freeze political modernization (conservative reactionary) • Sergei Witte (Minister of Finance)- inspired by both nationalism and industrialization, believed that Russia suffering from lack of modernization  Doubled nationalized RR’s (trans-Siberian line)  Currency based on gold standard  Encouraged western nations to invest capital and factories in Russia-spurred development of steel, coal, and oil industries

The Russo- Japanese War (1904-05)

• Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)  Rooted in Russian desire for N. Korea  Russia suffered humiliating defeat- brought about calls for political reforms • Calls for reform:  Business and professional classes seeking representative regime  Working classes and peasants seeking more radical reforms  Nationalist calls for self determination from Russia’s ethnic minorities  Separatist nationalist calls from Ukraine and Poles

The Russian Revolution of 1905

• Causes/Actions:   Working classes marched upon St. Petersburg with petition for reforms “Bloody Sunday”- Crowd met by troops who fired upon crowd  Event turned working class against Tsar Nicholas II • Events of 1905 included strikes, peasant uprisings, revolts among ethnic minorities, and troop mutinies • General Strike of October of 1905 paralyzed Russian economy and industry  Tsar Nicholas II issued October Manifesto- granted full civil rights and promised popularly elected legislature (Duma)  Manifesto split liberal (Working class) and conservative (middle class) forces

The Duma under Nicholas II

• Duma drafts new constitution- The Fundamental Laws  Tsar exercised executive powers, including veto  Duma dismissed by Nicholas II due to opposition to Tsar’s policies • By 1914- Russia was an established conservative constitutional monarchy with a peasant based, but industrializing economy

Great Britain in the late 19

th

Century

• Peaceful political evolution from classical liberalism towards full-fledged democracy • Accurate synopsis?

 1832 Reform Bill extended suffrage  John Stuart Mill’s

On Liberty

- discussed importance of protecting individual liberties during times of electoral expansionism  1884 Reform Bill- Universal male suffrage

Nature of British Politics

• Conservatism vs. Liberalism in British politics  Court decisions ruled against labor unions  H of C passed “People’s Budget” (welfare programs)  Ascension of Liberal Party in British politics overcame aristocratic conservatism • David Lloyd George- leading Liberal Party member  Advocated taxing the rich to pay for social benefits for masses (welfare state)

The Irish Problem

• Potential Civil War- England slow to make needed reforms to lessen oppression   Bills to introduce self-govt. to Ireland failed to pass Irish supported Liberal party seeking favorable legislation successful as home rule established • But- Religious conflict within Ireland b/w Catholics (Southern Ireland) and Protestants (Northern Ireland Ulsterites) blocked attempts to reform     Ulsterites raised army of 100k to block attempt at home rule Compromise bill that applied only to S. Ireland rejected Irish question postponed by WWI in 1914 Nationalism prevented progress!!

Jewish Emancipation

• 1848- turning point in Jewish life in Europe  Gained civil rights in France & Germany  Momentum continued thru 1850’s- 70’s during conservative reaction  1871 German Constitution abolished all forms of Jewish discriminatory laws • Impact of “Freedom”:  Entered free market economy as professionals and entrepreneurs  Increased social mobility  Nationalism for respective nation states

Modern Anti-Semitism

• Theodore Herzl- Jewish German nationalist who promoted idea of Zionism for Jews in midst of Ant- Semitic revival following financial panics of 1870’s and 1890’s  Zionism- Safe haven for religiously oppressed groups- sought independent Jewish state  Modern Anti-Semitism- when govts funnel political and economic discontent thru Anti-Semitic channels, especially in E. Europe and Russia

Marxism & the Socialist Movement

• Question facing Europe- how did socialism fit into nationalist theories and support to nation state?

• Growth in numbers of socialist followers following events of 1870 resulted in The Socialist International confederation of national socialist parties  In midst of failed political revolutions of 1848, Marx wrote in

Das Capital

(1867) that revolution would surely follow economic crisis  May Day- May 1 st designated as international strike day by working class as symbolic of working class demands  Many feared that increased solidarity and membership growth would result in ultimate Marxian objective- WORLDWIDE REVOLUTION by the PROLATARIAT

Unions and Revisionism

• Socialism not marked by gross radicalism, but thru moderation  Suffrage replaced revolution as a means to progress and change    Nationalism transcended class antagonisms Lack of clear agenda Overall increased standard of living and quality of life • Growth of moderate labor unions demonstrated that workers not seeking radical revolutionary change   Concentrated on tangible goals Successful collective bargaining agreements favored German industrial workers • Marxian Revisionism- belief that Marxist ideas should be updated to reflect the times  Advocated gradual evolution for working class demands rather that outright Revolution

Chapter Review Questions

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Describe the impact of nationalism on Louis Napoleon's 2 nd Republic.

Discuss how Italy was able to overcome regional differences for unification.

Analyze the evolution of Prussia as a great power in 19 th century Europe.

Explain the challenges facing France during the 3 rd Republic.

Assess the causes for the evolution of democracy in Great Britain.

Although Marxian ideology spread via political influence in 19 th century Europe, it never evolved into international revolution. Why?

Chapter Essay Question

1. Describe the impact of Nationalism on the affairs of 2 of the following 4 countries in 19 th century Europe:     Italy Germany France Russia