Attention

感官刺激 、 淺層記憶 、 深層記憶與學習 Message A Message B Message C Message D 感覺  知覺 Selective Filter B Limited capacity decision channel STM & WM Responses Long term memory Senses are the physiological methods of perception.

Cocktail party effect

Broadbent’s （ 1958 ） Filter Theory of Selective Attention

• Selective attention is what people colloquially think of when they think of "attention." It is attending to one stimuli while ignoring other competing stimuli.

Three primary theories of selective attention

• • • – – – Filter theory ： Attention filters out extraneous information Basic filter theory (Broadbent) Attenuation （ weakened ） theory (Triesman) Late-filter theory （ only some conscious ） (Deutsch & Deutsch) Bottleneck theory ： Attention is a bottleneck that prevents extraneous information from getting through. (Similar to filter theory) – Resource theory ： Attention is a resource-based process, and once the resource is used up, no other information can be attended to. Driving and conversing with the person next to you vs. Driving and talking on a cell phone

Broadbent’s （ 1958 ） Filter Theory of Selective Attention

Emails Message A RSS Feeds Message B Chats Message C Text Messages Message D Selective Filter ？ B Limited capacity decision channel Responses Post Emails Long term memory

"Top-Down" and "Bottom-Up"

• The filter can be directed by top-down or bottom up influences. • Top- down influences include a person's own intentions and expectations by stimuli in the world . – If I am trying to read a book, then my intention to read will direct my attention to the words on the page, constituting a top-down influence. • Bottom-up influences, by contrast, are directed that "catch" our attention. – If someone taps me on the shoulder while I'm reading, the tap will direct my attention away from the book and toward that person, constituting a bottom-up influence.

Sensory Store in Channel Theory

Shadowing

1. Each of ear listens to a different message (dichotic presentation) 2. The listener is required to repeat the message that goes to one of the ears

Stroop effect

1. Selectively attending to the color and ignoring the word 2. Two processes interfere with each other 3. One is automatic

紅 藍 綠 黃 黑

紅 藍 綠 黃 黑

•

Paying attention

• 1.

Consciousness: Internal stimuli: one’s state of mind 2. External stimuli: features of environment 3. Oneself: personal existence • Attention: 1. Enormous amount of information to our senses 2. Limited amount that we perceive Application:

注意廣度實驗

實驗目的

• • • 注意的廣度是注意的基本品質之一，指的是在一 瞬間人們能夠清楚地把握物件的數量。 注意的廣度和記憶的廣度類似，都是一個閾限的 問題。 影響注意廣度的 等等。 因素 有很多：如 刺激呈現的時間、 注意物件的特點、主體的知識經驗、主體的練習 1 ．掌握測定視覺注意廣度的方法。 2 ．測定個體的視覺注意廣度。

實驗儀器和材料

• • • 速示儀 數形（圓點、數位、 圖形）卡片 24 張 字母卡片 48 張

實驗程序

1 ． 測定 數位圖形 的注意廣度 （ 1 ）將速示器放在桌上，讓被試面對速示器坐下。調整儀 器的位置，與被試相距 25 釐米，並使呈現的卡片的中 心與被試的視線等高。 （ 2 ）主試先把圓點卡片按隨機順序排好，在卡片後面注明 序號與圓點數目，將刺激呈現時間置於 100 毫秒，然後 將卡片放入速示器，告知被試注意看儀器的中心，在短 暫的燈亮時間裏看清卡片上的黑點有多少個，然後報告 給被試。主試發出“預備”口令後按動開關，燈亮 打亂順序 4 次重測，一共做 5 100 毫秒即行關閉。被試報告看到圓點數，主試依次記錄答 案，但不要告訴被試是否正確。做完一組後把圓點卡片 遍。做完之後，休息幾分 鐘。 （ 3 ）用數位卡片按上述方法測試，並記錄結果 （ 4 ）用圖形卡片按上述方法測試，並記錄結果。

實驗程序

2 ．測定 字母 的注意廣度 （ 1 ） 主試分別使用分散和排列成行的字母卡片、顏 色相同與顏色不同的、大小相同與大小不同的 字母卡片按上述方法測定，不同的是被試在觀 察後，要把所看見的字母寫在紙上。做完 1 遍 以後，再與原卡片核對，並記下“對”還是 “錯”。 （ 2 ） 主試記錄核對結果。

實驗結果及處理

• 畫圖或根據實驗結果用直線內插法求出 50% 實驗次數被正確判斷的各類刺激數， 即為被試對該類刺激的注意廣度。

問題與討論

1 ．比較圓點、數位與圖形的注意廣度是否 存在差別。若有差別，原因是什麼？ 2 ．比較分散的與排列成行的、顏色相同的 與顏色不同的、大小相同的與大小不同 的字母的注意廣度是否存在差別。若有 差別，原因是什麼？ 3 ．比較不同的被試的注意廣度是否存在差 異。

Implications of current research into attention process

• Internally: Biological nature of attention process • Externally: Relationships between the individual and presenting tasks

Biological factors of attention difficulties

• Appropriate pharmacological treatment increasing attention efficiency • Unintended, unwanted side effects , such as liver damage

Intervention strategies

contributing to academic success

• Family systems counseling _ behavioral modification _ attention disorders • Individual counseling • (a) taking responsibility of one's disability • (b) developing skills to manage one's medication schedule • (c) developing more effective study skills • (d) making persistent efforts to improve reading, language, and math skills

Instruction that attract the attention of learners

• A blend of attention strategies – (a) the ability to focus attention – (b) the ability to sustain attention – (c) the ability to selectively attend to instructional stimuli – (d) the ability to engage in academic tasks requiring alternating attention – (e) the ability to engage in academic tasks requiring divided attention

Internal and External treatment

• Pharmacological agents • Benefits of such treatment should offset unwanted side effects • Externalized intervention strategies may include specific interventions made by teacher, family, and learner

Working Memory

A common use of working memory

May be that it is your working memory capacity that best ‘measures’ your intelligence. Key?

Critical on learning ！

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• Working memory contains the information of which you are immediately aware.

• Key ？ Prerequisites ！

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• Are they seven chunk or a single chunk ？ • Key ？ Cognitive strategies ！

Why are uniforms uniform? Because color helps us track objects

• Laboratory tests have revealed that humans can pay attention to only 3 objects at a time . Yet there are instances in the real world — for example, in watching a soccer match — when we certainly think we are paying attention to more than 3 objects. Are we wrong? No. A new study shows how we do it — it’s all in the color

coding .

People can focus on more than three items at a time if those items share a common color . But, logically enough, no more than 3 color sets .

July issue of

Psychological Science

.

People remember prices more easily if they have fewer syllables

• The

phonological loop

memory —can only hold — an important component of working

1.5 to 2 seconds

of spoken information. • Faster speakers have an advantage over slower speakers. • A consumer study reveals that every extra syllable in a product‘s price decreases its chances of being remembered by 20%. Thus, people who shorten the number of syllables (e.g.

5,325, English vs.

中文 ) have better recall. However, since we store information both verbally and visually, it’s also the case that unusual looking prices, such as $8.88, are recalled better than typical looking prices. September issue of the

Journal of Consumer Research

.

Loading ： STM & WM ！

Cognitive strategies

•

Central

executive : Coordinates and manages the various tasks needed • Containing several different

components

Factors that affect W. Memory

– Food •

and supplements

Diet • Dietary supplements –

Biological rhythms

• Sleep – –

Emotion Drugs & chemicals

• Hormone therapy • Alcohol • • • Ecstasy Other illegal drugs PCBs – – – –

Clinical conditions

• Multiple sclerosis • Head injury

Development

• Prenatal factors • Language • • • Maths learning Face recognition Attention

Gender differences Other

Research Results on Brain and Development

~August 2006 • •

August 2006

– Exercise helps sustain mental activity as we age – Copper increases cognitive decline in older adults on high-fat diet – Novelty aids learning – Most of the cognitive deficits associated with alcoholism recoverable – Morbid obesity in toddlers linked to low IQ – Childhood sleep apnea linked to brain damage, lower IQ – Ingredient commonly found in shampoos may inhibit brain development – Drug erases long-term memory – Restoring flexibility to old brains – Genetic variations that may be key to the evolution of the human brain –

July 2006

– Brain Imaging Identifies Best Memorization Strategies – Curry helps older brains – Vigorous exercise helps children's grades – Drug reverses aging effect on memory process – How multitasking impedes learning – Sleep makes memories resistant to interference – Support for labeling as an aid to memory – Avoiding predators may be the reason for our large brains – Bigger brains associated with domain-general intelligence Adapted from Science Magazine

感官刺激 、 淺層記憶 、 深層記憶 與學習 Message A Message B Message C Message D 感 覺 知 覺 Selective Filter B Limited capacity decision Channel Attention 用過即丟 STM & WM Long term memory Senses are the physiological methods of perception. Responses 內涵

Pattern Recognition

Pattern Recognition

• How do we recognize shapes and patterns – Template theory – Prototype theory – Feature theory – Structure theory

Template theory

美國銀行所常使用的私人支票

Prototype theory

Feature theory

Structure theory

• • 神經系統不僅有從低層到高層的連結，而 且也有 從高層到低層的回路連結。這種從下到上，然後 由上返下的 連結方式便使得訊息的流通成了一個 迴遞過程（ iterative process ）。 人類的神經系統利用了（一）迴遞過程，以 及 （二）經由學習作用所引發的神經細胞之間的特 殊的連結型態， 使得上下層之間屬於和諧的部份 會收斂到一個穩定的狀態，而不相 干的部份則會 發散到一個混沌的狀況。

自動調正系統

感官刺激 、 淺層記憶 、 深層記憶 與學習 Message A Message B Message C Message D 感 覺 知 覺 前 段 ： 何 處 有 物 件 ？ 後 段 ： 該 物 件 是 什 麼 ？ 型態辨識（

Pattern Recognition

） 模板理論

:

Limited

templates-matching theory

＿ 二維條碼、

IP

capacity 原型理論

:

B decision Responses

prototype-matching theory

Selective

: feature-analysis theory

內涵 ： 外顯記憶 內隱記憶 Filter 結構描述理論

: structure-discription theory

關係的連結 許多策略交互使用， 不太可能只運用單一方式， 否則人的判斷不會如此的快速 memory Senses are the physiological methods of perception.

罪犯的辨識系統 _ 特徵理論與其他

• • • • • 長期記憶 ：在資料庫要建立許多犯罪者的資料，包括身型、臉型、臉 部特微，眼睛、鼻子及耳朵等各個器官的特徵 型態辨識 ：利用監視器把訊號送給電腦去辨識嫌疑人，是否符合特徵 但是單就這些特徵就足夠了嗎？一旦有人故意變臉變裝，電腦或許就 無法辨認出來了， 型態辨識有許多不同的觀點 ：模板理論、原型理論、特徵理論、結構 描述理論 自動調正系統 ：以俗稱打帶跑的策略在執行，利用 自動校正為正確為止。 由下而上的特徵 理 論，再輔以由上而下的認知的結構性來判斷，彼此上下交互作用來進 行辨識，以增加處理流程的速度。而認知的形成是將過去的經驗與所 學習而得的認知應用在現在的情境上。當所辨認的物體有所欠缺的時 候，此時人體的自動調正系統會將辨認識的過程，利用由上而下的來