Transcript Motivation and Emotion

Motivation
Motivation
• The forces that act on or within an
organism to initiate and direct behavior
• A need or desire that energizes and
directs behavior
Motivation
• Instinct Theories
• Motivation is innate and due to genetic
programming
• Instincts are rigidly patterned throughout a
species and is unlearned
– Animals display instinctive behavior patterns
such as migration and mating behavior
• IE. Salmon returning to their birth place, birds
migrating south for the winter
Instinct Motivation
• Early instinct theorists based their beliefs
on Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.
They believed that animal species,
including humans, were born with
potentially thousands of pre-programmed
instinctive motivations in order to adapt
and survive.
– IE. If birds don’t migrate south in the winter,
their species will die off due to lack of food
Instinct Motivation
• Examples of Instincts
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Rivalry
Sympathy
Fear
Shyness
Cleanliness
Food-Seeking
Sociability
Parental Love
Mating
Submission
Modesty
Secretiveness
Repulsion
Jealousy
Curiosity
Combativeness
Hunting
Constructiveness
Why
Why does Jimmy
get into a lot of
fights?
Why is Sally so
quiet and timid?
Why is Dave
so
overweight?
Why does Jane
beat her
children?
Why do people do the things that they do?
(Instinct Theory)
• Why does Jimmy get into a lot of fights?
Combativeness Instinct
• Why is Sally so quiet and timid?
Shyness Instinct
• Dave is overweight and can’t stop eating
because of his food-seeking instinct.
• Jane beats and neglects her children
because she wasn’t born with a parental
love instinct.
Motivation
• Drive-Reduction Theories
• Behavior is motivated by the desire to
reduce internal tension caused by unmet
biological needs
• A physiological need creates an aroused
tension state (a drive) that motivates an
organism to satisfy the need
Drive-Reduction Motivation
• Homeostasis = The body monitors and
maintains relatively constant levels of
internal states, such as body temperature,
fluid levels, and energy supplies
• If any of these levels deviates very far
from the optimal level, the body initiates
processes (motivation) to bring the
condition back to normal
Drive-Reduction Motivation
• If you haven’t eaten anything for a period of
time, the internal pangs of hunger signal an
imbalance in your body’s energy level. The
unmet biological need is energy/food, and to
bring your energy state back to an optimal level
and achieve homeostasis, your behavior is to
eat.
• Dry mouth is a signal of water depletion. In
order to bring water levels back to normal, you
drink.
Why did Shawn steal that candy bar?
Why does Carrie
wear sweatshirts,
even in the
summer?
Why do people do the things that they do?
(Drive-Reduction Theory)
• Why did Shawn steal the family computer? In
order to sell it for the cash he needed to
purchase drugs. His body told him that he
needed it.
• Carrie always wears long sleeve shirts, even in
the summer. She must have an internal
thermostat that drops very easily, and in order to
maintain a certain internal body temperature,
she always has to wear an extra layer of
clothing.
Motivation
• Opponent-Process
Theory/Arousal Theory
• Yerkes-Dodson Law
• Motivation is based on emotions
(happy, sad, etc.)
• Humans are born with an
emotional homeostasis?
Opponent-Process Motivation
• When we experience something that makes us
feel good or makes us happy, eventually the
feeling wears off. Our motivation is to repeat the
behavior again, or to find new behaviors to get a
similar feeling
• When we experience something that makes us
feel bad, eventually things get better. Our
motivation is then to avoid things that make us
feel bad, and instead seek out things that make
us feel better
Why does Tom shoot heroin?
Why can’t Eva
get enough
sex?
Why does Jerry never go into the water?
Why do people do the things that they do?
• Tom is a heroin addict because he wants to feel
good all of the time. He uses more and more
heroin as his tolerance rises.
• Eva is a sex addict because she wants to feel
good all of the time, and since casual sex isn’t
enough to make her feel good all of the time,
she continually seeks out new partners.
• Jerry never goes near the water because he fell
into a pool one time and almost drowned. He
fears the water, and to avoid fearful feelings, he
avoids water.
Motivation
• Incentive Theory – Extrinsic Motivation
• Behavior is motivated solely by the pull of
external rewards (reinforcement principal)
Why did Kevin kill Bill?
Why does Jane swim everyday, for many hours?
Why does Steve do nothing but homework?
Why do people do the things that they do?
(Incentive Theory)
• Kevin committed murder because he was
paid to do so.
• Jane swims everyday, before and after
school, on weekends, etc. so that she can
win an Olympic Gold medal.
• Steve is considered a geek because he
does all of his homework so that he can
get all “A’s”. If he does, he can have a
television in his bedroom.
Intrinsic Motivation
• Intrinsic motivation is when you are motivated by
internal factors, as opposed to the external
drivers of extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic
motivation drives you to do things just for the fun
of it, or because I believe it is a good or right
thing to do.
• Internal desires to perform a particular task,
people do certain activities because it gives
them pleasure, develops a particular skill, or it’s
morally the right thing to do.
• Why did
Cassie
become a
nun?
• Why does Greg work at the
homeless shelter on weekends,
instead of playing baseball?
• Why does Karen spend so many hours
working on her perfecting her swing?
• Why did Jessica serve on jury duty, even though she
missed several days of work and an exam?
Why do people do the things that they do?
(Intrinsic Motivation)
• Cassie became a nun because she felt that it
was morally the right thing to do.
• Greg works at the homeless shelter because it
makes him feel good to help other people in
need.
• Karen practices her swing because she enjoys
softball, and so that she can become a better
softball player.
• Jessica took the stand as a witness in the
murder trial because putting away criminals is
the right thing to do.
Social Acceptance
• Behaviors are motivated
by the desire to increase
our social acceptance
and inclusion in social
groups.
Control
• Motivation is driven by a need
to be decisive, assertive, and
active. Behaviors aim to seek
to influence others when it is
advantageous to personal
gains.
Competition
• Competition motivates behavior because
people can enhance their own self-esteem
when they are able to make comparisons of
their own performance to that of others.
While all learners appear to be motivated to
some extent by competition, the importance
of competition is greater for some learners
than for others. These differences are often
related to the person's previous experience
or to the importance that cultures or
subcultures place on competition versus
cooperation.
Motivation
• Humanistic Theory
• Internal motivation factors
• People are motivated to satisfy a
progression of internal needs, beginning
with the most basic and moving towards
the realization of personal potential
Humanistic Motivation
• Once the needs at a particular level are
satisfied, an individual is motivated to
satisfy the needs at the next level, and
then steadily move upwards
• The ultimate goal is self-actualization, or
the realization of a person’s potential, selffulfillment, or the full use of one’s talents
and capacities
Humanistic Motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Humanistic Motivation
• Physiological Needs:
– the need to breathe
– the need to drink and eat
– the need to dispose of bodily waste material
– the need for sleep
– the need to regulate the bodily temperature
– the need to seek shelter
– the need to reproduce
Humanistic Motivation
Physiological Needs
• Physiological needs are the very basic
needs such as air, water, food, sleep, sex,
etc. When these are not satisfied we may
feel sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort,
etc. These feelings motivate us to alleviate
them as soon as possible to establish
homeostasis. Once they are alleviated, we
may then think about other things.
• When the physiological needs are met, the
need for safety will emerge.
Humanistic Motivation
• Safety Needs:
– Security of employment
– Security of revenues and resources
– Physical Security - violence, delinquency,
aggressions
– Moral and physiological security
– Familial security
– Security of health
Humanistic Motivation
Safety Needs
• Safety needs have to do with establishing
stability and consistency in a chaotic
world. IE. We need the security of a
home and family. If a family is
dysfunctional, a child cannot move to the
next level because they are constantly
concerned for their safety. Love and
belongingness (Step 3) have to wait until
they are no longer cringing in fear.
• After physiological and safety needs are
fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are
based on the needs for belongingness and
love.
Humanistic Motivation
• Belongingness and Love Needs:
– This involves emotionally-based relationships
in general, such as friendship, sexual
relationship, or having a family. Humans want
to be accepted, and to belong to groups,
whether it be clubs, work groups, religious
groups, family, gangs, etc. They need to feel
loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others,
and to be accepted by them.
Humanistic Motivation
Belongingness and Love Needs
People have a constant desire
to feel needed. In the absence
of these elements, people
become increasingly
susceptible to loneliness, social
anxiety, and depression.
• One the needs of Stages 1 thru 3 have
been met, humans can concentrate on
fulfilling esteem needs.
Humanistic Motivation
• Esteem Needs:
– The need to be respected, to self-respect and
to respect others. Need to engage oneself in
order to gain recognition, have an activity
which gives value to oneself, be it in a
profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level
can result in a low self-esteem and inferiority
complexes, and on the other hand in an
inflated sense of self and snobbishness.
• Only if the needs of Stages 1 thru 4 have
been met can a person move on the Stage
5. Most people spend the majority of their
lives striving to achieve and maintain the
goals set forth in Stages 1 thru 4, and may
never reach Stage 5, self-actualization.
Humanistic Motivation
• Self-Actualization:
– Self-actualization is the instinctual need of a
human to make the most of their unique abilities.
Maslow described it as follows:
• Self Actualization is the intrinsic growth of
what is already in the organism, or more
accurately, of what the organism is.
• A musician must make music, the artist must
paint, a poet must write, if he is to be
ultimately at peace with himself. What a man
can be, he must be. This need we may call
self-actualization.
• The need for self-actualization is "the desire to
become more and more what one is, to become
everything that one is capable of becoming."
People who have everything can maximize their
potential. They can seek knowledge, peace,
esthetic experiences, self-fulfillment, oneness
with God, etc. It is usually middle-class to upperclass students who take up environmental
causes, join the Peace Corps, go off to a
monastery, etc.
Humanistic Motivation
• Characteristics of Self-Actualized People:
– They embrace the facts and realities of the world
(including themselves) rather than denying or avoiding
them.
– They are spontaneous in their ideas and actions.
– They are creative.
– They are interested in solving problems; this often
includes the problems of others. Solving these
problems is often a key focus in their lives.
– They feel a closeness to other people, and generally
appreciate life.
– They have a system of morality that is fully internalized
and independent of external authority.
– They judge others without prejudice, in a way that can
be termed objective.
Specific Motivations
• Hunger
• Sex
• Achievement
Hunger
• What physiological factors cause us to feel
hungry?
• What psychological factors cause us to
feel hungry?
Hunger – Physiological Factors
• Glucose/Blood-Sugar Levels
– Glucose is the form of sugar that circulates in
the blood and provides the major source of
energy for body tissues.
– Low blood-sugar levels triggers hunger. Low
level messages are sent to the hypothalamus.
• Orexin
– Orexin is the hunger-triggering hormone
secreted by the hypothalamus.
Hunger – Physiological Factors
• Leptin
– Leptin is a protein secreted by fat cells. When
it is abundant, it causes the brain to increase
metabolism and the body’s activity levels, and
decreases hunger. When there is too little
leptin, it causes the brain to decrease
metabolism, lower activity levels, and
increases hunger.
Hunger – Physiological Factors
• Ghrelin
– Gherlin is the hormone secreted by an empty
stomach. It sends an “I’m hungry” signal to
the brain.
• PYY
– PYY is a digestive tract hormone that sends
an “I’m not hungry” signal to the brain.
Hunger – Physiological Factors
• Lateral Hypothalamus – part of the
brain responsible for hunger
• Ventromedial Hypothalamus – part of
the brain responsible for stopping
eating
• Set-Point Theory – the hypothalamus
decides what signal to send based on
a genetic metabolic rate (how quickly
the body uses energy)
Hunger – Psychological Factors
• Our eating habits (when we eat, what we
eat, how much we eat, etc.) is not only
controlled by internal signals of hunger or
fullness, but also by external factors
related to taste preferences, culture,
media influences, convenience, moods,
religion, etc.
Hunger – Psychological Factors
• The Garcia Effect – Simply thinking
about a certain food and its pairing
with an unpleasant episode will curb
your desire for that food
– IE. At the movies, your friend vomits
popcorn all over the seat and your
shoes. Popcorn no longer has an
appeal to you.
Hunger – Psychological Factors
• Some people have a preferences for hot and
spicy foods, while others enjoy sweets or salty
foods.
• In some cultures or time periods heaviness
indicated wealth, so eating was/is encouraged.
• Eastern cultures often enjoy dog, rat, and horse
meat. In some Middle Eastern cultures the eye
of a camel is considered a delicacy.
• Hindus avoid eating beef because Hindus
believe that all living things contain a part of the
divine spirit.
Hunger – Psychological Factors
• When you are happy you may eat certain foods,
but when you are sad you may indulge in other
foods.
• If there is an abundance or lack of grocery
stores, fast-food drive-thru, and restaurant,
eating habits may differ.
• Media images influence eating behaviors as
well. If the Hollywood standard is thin, if models
are “heroin chic”, then eating habits may
change, especially with regards to young
women.
Hunger – Psychological Factors
• Eating Disorders
– Anorexia Nervosa – an eating disorder in
which a normal-weight person diets and
becomes significantly underweight, yet still
feeling fat, continues to starve
– Bulimia Nervosa – an eating disorder
characterized by episodes of overeating,
followed by vomiting, laxative use, or
excessive exercise
Sex
• What physiological factors cause us
to have sex?
– What are the stages of the human
sexual response cycle? How do sex
hormones influence human sexual
development and arousal?
• What psychological factors cause us
to have sex?
Sex – Physiological Factors
• Hormones
– Estrogen – a sex hormone, secreted in
greater amounts by females than by
males.
– Testosterone – a sex hormone, secreted
in greater amounts by males than by
females.
Sex – Physiological Factors
• The Sexual Response Cycle
– Excitement
– Plateau
– Orgasm
– Resolution
Sex – Physiological Factors
• Excitement
–The genital areas become
engorged with blood, causing a
man’s penis to swell and a
woman’s clitoris to swell, as well
as opening a woman’s vagina.
Sex – Physiological Factors
• Plateau
–Excitement peaks as breathing,
pulse, and blood pressure rates
continue to increase.
Secretions from the penis and
clitoris may occur.
Sex – Physiological Factors
• Orgasm
–Further increases in breathing,
pulse, and blood pressure,
accompanied by muscle
contractions all over the body.
Males propel semen from the penis
while a female’s uterus is put into a
position to receive sperm during
this stage.
Sex – Physiological Factors
• Resolution
– After orgasm, the body gradually returns
to its unaroused state.
– Refractory Period – a resting period
after an orgasm, during which a person
cannot achieve another orgasm (a few
minutes to a day or more for typical
men, far less time for a woman)
Sex – Psychological Factors
• External Stimuli
– Seeing, hearing, or reading erotic
material
– Imagination and Daydreams
– Cultural Influences
– Personal Morals and Beliefs
– Media Portrayals of Sex
– Religious Convictions
– Drugs and Alcohol
– Contraception