Transcript Document

Department
Spanish, Portuguese
School ofofsomething
and
Latin
Studies
FACULTY
OF American
OTHER
SPPO 1400
Nationalism, Politics and Terrorism in
Spain: The case of ETA
Dr Pablo San Martin
[email protected]
Indicative Readings
• Llera, F.J., Mata, J.M. and Irvin, C.L., “ETA: From Secret Army to Social
Movement – The Post-Franco Schim of the Basque Nationalist Movement”, in O’Kane,
Rosemary H.T., ed., Terrorism (Cheltenham Glos: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2005),
pp. 366-394.
• Jáuregui, G., “ETA: Orígenes y Evolución Ideológica y Política”, in Elorza, A.,
ed., La Historia de ETA (Madrid, Temas de Hoy, 2000), pp. 171-274.
• Domínguez Iribarren, F., “El Enfrentamiento de ETA con la Democracia”, in
Elorza, A., ed., La Historia de ETA (Madrid, Temas de Hoy, 2000), pp.277-419.
• Domínguez Iribarren, F., Las Raíces del Miedo (Madrid: Aguilar, 2003). Capítulo
I: “Algo habremos hecho”, pp. 17-46. Capítulo IX: “El Camino de la Fractura
Social”, pp. 217-246.
• Domínguez Iribarren, F., ETA: Estrategia Organizativa y Actuaciones. 1978-1992
(Bilbao: Universidad del Pais Vasco, 1998). Capítulo III: “ETA: Estructura
interna”, pp.79-185. Capitulo IV: “La estructura ‘militar’”, pp. 187-216.
• Reinares, F., Patriotas de la Muerte. Quienes han Militado en ETA y Por Qué
(Madrid: Taurus, 2001). Capítulo 1: “Quienes son los militantes de ETA?”, pp.1949.
• Funes Rivas, M.J., La Salida del Silencio. Movilizaciones por la Paz en Euskadi.
1986-1998 (Madrid: Ediciones AKAL, 1998). Capítulo II: “Quienes son?”, pp. 3554.
• Uriarte, E., Cobardes y Rebeldes. Por Qué Pervive el Terrorismo (Madrid: Temas
de Hoy, 2003). Capítulo 10: “La Rebeldía”, pp. 227-250.
• Alonso, R., “The Ending of ETA Terrorism: Lessons to Learn and Mistakes to Avoid
from Northern Ireland”, Real Instituto Elcano, Análisis 51/2006, pp. 1-8.
Basque Nationalism
Sabino Arana: purity versus impurity.
- Author of ‘Bizkaia por su Independencia’.
- Founder of Partido Nacionalista Vasco (PNV).
Antecedents:
- Medieval racist discourses about the
‘purity of blood’ of the northern ‘old
Christians’.
- Carlism: Fundamentalist Catholic ideology.
Traditionalist and reactionary movement opposed
to liberalism.
First third of 20th Century: two sectors
within nascent Basque nationalism:
- Separatist (marginal).
- Autonomist/Regionalist (dominant).
Spanish Civil War:
- Basque nationalist and workers parties
support the Republic.
- Basque Carlists and traditionalists
support Francoist rebels.
Francoist repression?
“La represión no fue cuantitativamente tan intensa como en
otras zonas de España, pues en definitiva los nacionalistas
eran gentes de orden, y para el nuevo régimen se trataba de
extirpar el virus “separatista”, no de exterminar grupos
sociales enteros de acuerdo con la operación quirúrgica que
Franco anunciara para la izquierda Española en noviembre de
1935. Pero no por eso faltaron los fusilamientos, las penas
de cárcel, las deportaciones (…) y destierros, así como una
prolongada persecución del euskera en la esfera pública, por
no hablar de los símbolos nacionalistas.”
[Elorza, 2000: 56]
[…and, anyway, who repressed the Basques?]
“Sabino Arana había descrito erróneamente a Euskadi como un
país ocupado, pero Franco hizo efectiva esa ocupación.”
[Gurutz Jaurequi, quoted in Elorza, 2000: 56]
…in the meantime
…and, in the meantime, what was the Basque exiled (nationalist)
opposition doing?
1940s: Francoist Regime part of
the (Fascist) ‘Axis of Evil’
 Hopes for an Ally
intervention in Spain.
1950s: New context of Cold War
Francoist Regime as an
anti-Communist champion.
No hope for international intervention.
Progressive integration of Francoism in international
community (UN, USA support, etc.)
DISSORIENTATION. CRISIS.
[crisiscrisiscrisiscrisisdissorientationnohopenohopenohope…yaguirrequenolesenseñoeuskerasushijo
straidor!]
Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA)
1952: creation of ‘study group’ EKIN
Revision of nationalist history, ideology...
Temporary coalition with EGI (PNV’s youth organisation).
1958: Split between EKIN and EGI.
EKIN (with some former militants of EGI) reconverts into a
new group called ETA.
1958-1968: Internal ideological debate and low intensity
actions.
Summer 1968: First armed actions.
 Civil Guard killed in an unexpected clash with ETA militants in
a road control.
 ETA militants escape, but they are persecuted by Civil Guard and
one of them (Txabi Etxebarrieta) killed hours later after a new
shooting. First ETA ‘martyr’.
 Police Chief Melitón Manzanas killed by ETA in San Sebastian one
month later.
Ideological Debate and the Reformulation of Basque
Nationalism: 1959-1968 (i)
1962: ETA I Assembly (Belloc Abbey, French Basque Country).
- Publication of Zutik! (ETA’s official bulletin)
- Ideological document: ‘Principios de ETA’.
 Return to Arana:
- Rediscovery of traditional and radical nationalism,
including the rigid dichotomist division ‘purity vs
impurity’.
- Regenerationist spirit: need to rearticulate Basque
nationalism (incarnated by PNV).
 Departure from Arana:
- Rejection of concept of race as main element defining
Basqueness.
- Less emphasis on religion.
- Elevation of language (Euskera) at the centre of the
nationalist discourse.
- Growing influence of revolutionary and anti-colonial
ideologies.
Ideological Debate and the Reformulation of Basque
Nationalism: 1959-1968 (ii)
1963-1965: Towards Ethno-nationalism.
1965: Publication of Federico Krutwig’s influential work
Vasconia. Estudio Dialéctico de una Nacionalidad.
• Development of Ethno-nationalism: language as main
identity marker.
• Attempt to use Marxism to interpret Basque history.
1964-1965: ETA’s III and IV Assemblies.
Growing centrality of anti-colonial (and
revolutionary ideas and theories) Adoption of
the principle of ‘action-reaction-action’.
1965-1968: Ideological Confrontation.
Tensions between the ‘leftist’ and the ‘nationalist’
sectors.
1970-1973: The rise of ETA
1970: Burgos Process
Show trial against 7 ETA militants, aimed at showing the determination of
the Government to finish with Basque separatism.
 BUT became a trial against the Francoist Regime, attracting international
attention and the support of the Spanish opposition to Francoism.
 ETA gained prestige as an anti-Francoist organisation.
1973: Assassination of Admiral Carrero Blanco
1974: The break up of ETA
Context of continuous internal ideological confrontation: expulsion of
several groups of militants, such as for example the so-called ‘Red Cells’ in
1970. Problematic Issues:
- Nationalist or Socialist?
- Strategic issues:
 Primacy of armed struggle over social mobilisation?
 Should armed struggle function autonomously from a
wider nationalist and social mobilisation?
 Is it worth to participate at all in social mobilisation?
1974: Division of ETA:
- ETA militar (ETA m): Separation of military organisation and
‘popular front’. Primacy of Military organisation (popular insurrection) over
social movement.
- ETA politico-militar (ETA pm): Combination of military activities
(selective use of violence) and social mobilisation. Primacy of political/social
movement over military branch.
1975-1982: Transition to Democracy
New context marked by new political opportunities and spaces for
mobilisation: Both ETAm and ETApm recognised the necessity to create
a social movement / network: Movimiento Nacional de Liberación Vasco
(MNLV)  KAS.
1976:
 ETApm: Ponencia Otsabiaga: i) Established the primacy of the
social front over the military branch. ii) Called for the
progressive dissolution of the military organisation. VIII
Assembly: Decided to create a political party.
 ETAm: Rejected the Ponencia Otsabiaga and the new emerging
spaces for social and political mobilisation. Alternativa KAS.
1977: 1st Democratic elections + Amnesty  Definitive split between
ETApm and ETAm.
•
Euskadiko Ezkerra (EE): Political party linked to ETApm. Created in 1977.
Systemic party.
•
Herri Batasuna (HB): Political party linked to ETAm. Created in 1978.
Anti-systemic party.
1981: ETApm dissolves and accepts the new democratic context. EE
fully integrated in the Basque political and institutional life.
ETA’s network of support
People killed by ETA (1968-1992)
90
80
70
60
50
85
40
62
30
69
50
20
31
25
26
92
91
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
82
82
81
80
12
79
76
75
74
73
1
0
71
70
0
72
1
69
19
68
0 2
6
31 31
45
37 40
19 19
77
19 16 17
78
10
37
1980s: From ‘Insurrectionalism’
to Negotiation
Alternativa KAS, as base of any
negotiation process:
- Recognition of the national
sovereignty of Euskal Herria.
- Exit from the Basque Country of
the occupying police and armed
forces.
- Creation of a ‘Transitional
government in Euskal Herria’
free from Spanish interference
(negotiation among Basques
organizations, without Spanish
interference)
- Self determination of Euskal
Herria.
- Amnesty.
1988-9: Failed Algiers
Negotiations.
1988: Pacto de Ajuria Enea
“1. El Estado democrático de derecho tiene su pilar básico en la soberanía de la voluntad popular,
expresado mediante el sistema de sufragio libre. Este Parlamento rechaza. en consecuencia, la
utilización de la violencia tal y como viene produciéndose en Euskadi por entender que, además de
constituir una práctica éticamente execrable y de acarrear desastrosas consecuencias de todo
orden para nuestro pueblo, representa la expresión más dramática de la intolerancia, el máximo
desprecio de la voluntad popular y un importante obstáculo para la satisfacción de las
aspiraciones de los ciudadanos vascos.”
“2.a. El Estatuto de Gernika representa la expresión de la voluntad mayoritaria de los ciudadanos
del País Vasco y constituye, en consecuencia, la norma institucional básica de que se ha dotado
para acceder a su autogobierno, por lo que su asunción o acatamiento es una condición necesaria
para alcanzar su definitiva normalización y pacificación.”
The new context of the late 1980s and early 1990s
Consolidation of Democracy: Strengthening of Basque Autonomic Institutions, increase in the level
of self-government, and growing legitimacy of Estatuto de Autonomía. New civil society.
GAL scandal:
-
1987  dissolution of GAL.
-
1990s  GAL trials and jail sentences to high-ranking members of the Socialist Government.
-
Dialectic ammunition to ETA.
-
France starts to collaborate actively. End of French ‘safe haven’.
-
Justice ‘doing its job’: no-one has immunity. State accountable.
Assassination of Yoyes (1986):
-
Internally: ‘Yoyes Syndrome’ (Fear to abandon the organisation, lack of internal debate and criticism).
-
Externally: Collapse of ETA’s popularity (increasingly seen as ‘fanatics’, etc.)
Pacto de Ajuria Enea (1988): New ‘Democratic bloc’ (including Basque nationalist and nonnationalist parties)  Isolation of Herri Batasuna.
Targeting of ‘innocent civilians’ (for example, Hipercor bombing in 1987): Collapse of ETA’s
popularity.
Failure of Algiers Negotiations (1989).
1980s: strategy of ‘Negociación’
“En la década de los 80, ETA
recrudece su ofensiva para forzar
las negociaciones con el Gobierno
y los atentados masivos e
indiscriminados azotan a la
sociedad española como no lo
había hecho hasta entonces.”
Especial ETA, El Mundo
Victimas Mortales de ETA (1977-1992)
90
(http://www.elmundo.es/eta/historia/anios80.html) 80
Main ETA attacks
70
60
- July 1986: Car bomb against a
convoy of Civil Guards in Madrid
 12 killed.
June 1987: Bombing of Hipercor
Car Park  21 killed.
50
85
40
62
30
69
50
20
31
December 1987: Bombing of Civil
Guard’s Casa Cuartel in Zaragoza
 11 killed.
May 1991: Bombing of Civil
Guard’s Casa Cuartel in Vic
(Barcelona)  10 killed.
37
31
31
37
45
40
10
12
19
19
88
89
26
25
0
77
78
79
80
81
82
82
84
85
86
87
90
91
92
Bidart Crisis (1992)
Detention in Bidart (France) of ETA’s heads:
• Francisco Mújica Garmendia, "Pakito”.
• José María Arregi Erostarbe, "Fiti“.
• José Luís Álvarez Santacristina,
"Txelis“.
Symbolic end to French ‘safe haven’.
ETA papers: Invaluable internal information
about ETA.
Beheaded organisation: all the sections
damaged.
Disarticulation of several commandos and
detention of dozens of militants in the
following months.
For the first time ETA and its network fear
(and the Spanish Government realises) that
the ‘vía policial’ could finish with ETA,
without any need to negotiate.
Victimas mortales de ETA (1992-2000)
30
25
20
15
26
23
10
14
5
13
12
6
5
1
0
92
93
94
95
0
96
97
98
99
2000
ETA’s strategic evolution
- 1970s: INSURGENCY WAR.
- From late 1970s to early 1990s:
NEGOTIATION.
- 1990s  NATIONAL
CONSTRUCTION – SOCIALIZATION
OF SUFFERING:
“Llevar a la práctica la socialización
del sufrimiento significa, lisa y
llanamente, perpetrar agresiones
personales, acosar en la vida
cotidiana a los ciudadanos – por
ejemplo cuando utilizan el transporte
público, atacado una y otra vez – y
hacer la vida imposible, a menudo al
pie de la letra, a los adversarios
ideológicos”.
Domínguez Iribarren, F., Las Raíces del Miedo (Aguilar:
Madrid, 2003), p. 218)
How to ‘socialize the
suffering’?
Intensification of KALE
BORROKA.
Targeting of: journalists,
lecturers, intellectuals, lowranking politicians and
members of non-nationalist
movements, etc.
New Pacifist Social Movements (early 1990s)
Elkarri: Nationalist movement. Conflict
resolution strategy, favouring
dynamics for peaceful negotiations.
Stronghold: Guipúzcoa.
http://www.elkarri.org
Gesto por la Paz: Pacifist movement.
Rejection of all kind of violence.
Passive strategy. Stronghold: Vizcaya.
http://www.gesto.org
New Constitutionalist Social Movements (late 1990s)
Turning point: Kidnap and
assassination of Ermua’s PP
councillor Miguel Angel Blanco
(1997)  Massive social
response: Espíritu de Ermua.
New organizations: Foro de
Ermua, Basta Ya!, Fundación
para la Libertad, Ciudadanía y
Libertad, etc.
New discourse: Spanish
Constitutional Patriotism.
New language: Radical
nationalism = Basque fascism,
Basque Nazism, totalitarism.
New oppositions: Nationalist
Ethnic communitarian project
versus Constitutional Civic
project.
Example of new ‘constitutionalist’ discourse
“Reconociendo la gran labor realizada por los grupos pacifistas creados en
Euskadi durante estos difíciles años, creemos que nuestra sociedad
demanda nuevas formas de oposición al fascismo vasco, que apelen más al
derecho democrático, a la palabra que al pacifismo gestual y al silencio
testimonial. Reivindicamos el espíritu civil iniciado en Ermua en las jornadas
de julio, en las que la sociedad vasca recupero no solo la calle, sino la voz, y
demostró que es posible luchar pacífica y contundentemente contra ETA y
quienes amparan, promueven y se benefician de su proyecto totalitario”.
[Foro Ermua, Manifiesto por la democracia en Euskadi, Bilbao, 13 Febrero 1998, punto 4]
The rearticulation of the Izquierda Abertzale:
Pacto de Lizarra (1998) and ETA’s ceasefire (1998-99)
Accords signed by the following nationalist
organisations: Partido Nacionalista Vasco (PNV),
Herri Batasuna (HB), Eusko Alkartasuna (EA),
Ezkerra Batua (EB), ELA/STV, LAB, AB, Batzarre,
Zutik, EHNE, ESK-CUIS, STEE-EILAS, Ezker
Sindikala, Hiru, Gogoa, Amnistiaren Aldeko
Batzordeak, Senideak, Bakea Orain, Elkarri,
Egizan, Herria 2000 Eliza, Gernika Batzordea y
Autodeterminazioaren Biltzarrak.
Creation of a ‘nationalist front’, opposed to the
growing strength of the ‘constitutionalist front’.
Key Elements: The conflict has political
origins and nature, so the solution should be
political.
No party of the conflict will win, so it is
necessary to negotiate.
Main issues to negotiate: territoriality,
decision-making (collective) subject and
sovereignty.
No pre-conditions in the negotiation process.
Formula: to deal with the “roots of the
conflict”.
“Euskal Herria debe tener la palabra y la
decisión”  Self-determination
1998-1999 CEASEFIRE
- Ceasefire ‘indefinido y sin condiciones’, anounced by ETA on the 16 Oct 1998.
- Aims: Strengthen ‘nationalist block’ against ‘constitutionalist block’, opportunity to reorganize
(damaged) military structure, and pressure on the government to ‘move’ and negotiate.
- May 1999: Meeting in Switzerland with Spanish Government representatives  No agreement
over issues to be negotiated: Government do not accepted to negotiate political issues.
- November 1999: End of ceasefire.
Towards the end of ETA?
March 2004: PSOE wins Spanish General elections.
Rodríguez Zapatero appointed new Spanish President.
Government expresses its willingness to ‘talk’ with ETA.
22 March 2006: ETA announces a new ceasefire.
-
Growing tension between Government (PSOE)
and main opposition party (PP): PP breaks
relations and all forms of communication with
Government (06/06/2006) as a protest against the unconfirmed contacts with ETA
and Government willingness to ‘make political concessions’.
- Official meetings between Batasuna and PSE (summer 2006), following unofficial
negotiations between PSE and Batasuna / ETA representatives over the previous
months.
- Kale Borroka continues to put pressure on Government.
- 30 December 2006: ETA’s bomb in Madrid Airport kills two in car park. End of
ceasefire (not confirmed by ETA).
5 June 2007: ETA announces the end of the ceasefire.
Any Questions?