Transcript File - IB Psychology
If one assumes that cognitive processes follow universal laws then all humans all over the world, regardless of environment and culture, would perform the same cognitive tasks with the same results.
Is this the case?
Human cognition is socially and culturally dependent – i.e. Cognitive abilities are influenced by the social and cultural context in which people live.
What does this mean? Explain this concept.
If one assumes that cognitive processes follow universal laws then all humans all over the world, regardless of environment and culture, would perform the same cognitive tasks with the same results. Human cognition is socially and culturally dependent – ie. Cognitive abilities are influenced by the social and cultural context in which people live.
Although the processes – memory,perception, language etc may be universal (etic concepts of memory) how they function in the context of social and cultural situations may differ (emic concepts of memory). For example, the concept of memory may be universal, but specific cultures may have specific ways of categorizing information (i.e. cultural schemas). You can refer to Bartlett’s
“War of the ghosts” to support this statement.
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) describes learning in terms of the interrelationship between
behavior, environmental factors, and cognitive factors.
It also provides the theoretical framework for interactive learning used to develop both Constructivism and Cooperative Learning. It is the foundation of social learning theory.
According to SCT, the learner acquires
knowledge as his or her environment converges with personal characteristics and personal mental schemas.
New experiences are evaluated in comparison to the past; prior experiences help to subsequently guide and inform the learner as to how the present should be investigated. (these mental representations guide behavior, as previously stated).
What is social learning? What is one example of something you have socially learned.
Social learning refers to the acquisition of mental representations that happens exclusively or primarily by interactions in a social group.
Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. Among others Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory.
There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can learn through
observation.
Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Meaning that the
ability to form memories from what you observe are key to learning.
Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.
Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others.
Example: The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. Hence the
phrase monkey see monkey
do.
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As previously discussed, mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans are active during observational learning.
Thus, we can create a schema of how to behave in social situations simply by observing a behavior 11
Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart.
This would suggest that we can create memory models of how to act, respond, and adapt to our environment simply by seeing something occur.
How can this positively and negatively influence our behavior from a cognitive perspective?
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Albert Bandura’s research in the 1970’s laid the foundation for social learning.
In his famous "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people.
Summary of Experiment
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=\4586465813762682933# http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bandura/bobo.htm
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The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently
toward a Bobo doll.
When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the
aggressive actions they had
previously observed. (This can be
used for the ethical considerations question).
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Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning: A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior. (Seeing someone perform the behavior)
What are ecological examples of learning from a live model?
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Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning: A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
This is the foundation of education. Thus, students learn from teacher descriptions and explanation. This is also true with sports What are ecological examples of learning from a verbal instructional model?
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Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning: A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in
books, films, television programs, or online media.
Thus, you can learn how to behave in a social situation simply from watching it on a television, or in a movie.
instructional model?
What are ecological examples of learning from a verbal
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Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.
Thus, we can create mental representations for things that we find rewarding and gravitate towards these behaviors.
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While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without
demonstrating new behaviors.
In other words, you can learn something socially without personally showing the behavior. 19
Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.
In other words, his model suggests that we can socially emulate positive and negative behaviors. 20
Researchers argue that social experiences (whether through live models, verbal models or symbolic models) can cause people to form a negative (or positive) social schema.
These schemas, also called working models and knowledge structures, consist of organized elements of past behaviors and experiences that form a relatively cohesive and persistent body of knowledge which guides one’s subsequent perception and appraisal of the world (Segal, 1988).
How can our experiences (or encoding/retrieval of memories) cause us to have negative mental representations or models?
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In the area of aggressive behavior, several studies have identified cognitive structures consisting of normative appropriateness of aggressive behavior as an important risk factor for aggression (Huesmann, 1988; Huesmann & Guerra, 1997). This research supports the notion that many children can model aggression seen in the home and form a social schema of how to behave and interact with peers. Further research on social schemas of aggression: http://www.ucm.es/info/psi/docs/journal/v13_n1_2010/art190.pdf
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In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had other important implication in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize the importance of modeling appropriate behaviors: as well as creating positive social schemas that guide behavior.
Many children have been shown to learn social schemas from teacher and parent models. 23
SOCIAL LEARNING AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR: A
SPECIFIC TEST OF A GENERAL THEORY (RONALDL. AKERS,M ARVIND . KROHNL, ONNL ANZA-KADUCE) http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/pb/thornberry/socy7004/pdfs/Social%20Le arning%20and%20Deviant%20Behavior.pdf
Cultural Influences in Decision Making: David F. Noble, Ph.D., Jonathan K. Sander, Catherine M. Obenshain http://www.dodccrp.org/events/5th_ICCRTS/papers/Track5/085.pdf
Cultural Influences on Memory:
Angela H. Gutchess and Allie Indeck http://www.brandeis.edu/gutchess/publications/Gutchess_Indeck.pdf
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