Transcript Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

Objective 3.1
Explain social learning theory, making
reference to two relevant studies.
Social and cultural influences
• If one assumes that cognitive processes follow
universal laws then all humans all over the
world, regardless of environment and culture,
would perform the same cognitive tasks with
the same results. Is this the case?
• Human cognition is socially and culturally
dependent – i.e. Cognitive abilities are
influenced by the social and cultural context
in which people live. What does this mean?
Explain this concept.
Social and cultural influences
 Although the processes – memory, perception,
language etc. may be universal (e.g. etic
concepts of learning) how they function in the
context of social and cultural situations may differ
(emic concepts of learning).
 For example, the concept of memory may be
universal, but specific cultures may have specific
ways of categorizing information (i.e. cultural
schemas). You can refer to Bartlett’s “War of the
ghosts” to support this statement.
Social cognitive theory (SCT)
 Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) describes learning
in terms of the interrelationship between
behavior, environmental factors, and cognitive
factors.
 It also provides the theoretical framework for
interactive learning used to develop both
Constructivism (Piaget) and Cooperative
Learning. It is the foundation of social learning
theory.
Social cognitive theory (SCT)
 According to SCT, the learner acquires
knowledge as his or her environment converges
with personal characteristics and personal
mental schemas.
 New experiences are evaluated in comparison
to the past; prior experiences help to
subsequently guide and inform the learner as to
how the present should be investigated. (these
mental representations guide behavior, as
previously stated).
Social affects on learning
 Social learning refers to the
acquisition of mental representations
that happens exclusively or primarily
by interactions in a social group.
 Social learning theory focuses on the
learning that occurs within a social
context. It considers that people learn
from one another, including such
concepts as observational learning,
imitation, and modeling.
 Among others Albert Bandura is
considered the leading proponent of
this theory.
Basic concepts of social learning
There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning
theory.
 First is the idea that people can learn through observation.
 Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of
this process. Meaning that the ability to form memories from what
you observe are key to learning. Thus, biological factors can
interfere with social learning.
(Read more: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/06/030606081111.htm)
 Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has
been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in
behavior.
Learning by Observation
 Higher animals, especially
humans, learn through
observing and imitating
others.
 Example: The monkey on the
right imitates the monkey on
the left in touching the
pictures in a certain order to
obtain a reward. Hence the
phrase monkey see monkey
do.
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Reviewing mirror Neurons
As previously discussed, mirror neurons in the brains of
animals and humans are active during observational
learning.
Thus, we can create a schema of how to behave in
social situations simply by observing a behavior
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Imitation Onset
 Learning by observation begins
early in life. This 14-month-old
child imitates the adult on TV
in pulling a toy apart.
 This would suggest that we can
create memory models of how
to act, respond, and adapt to
our environment simply by
seeing something occur. How
can this positively and negatively
influence our behavior from a
cognitive perspective?
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Bandura's Experiments
• Albert Bandura’s research in the 1970’s laid the
foundation for social learning.
• In his famous "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura
demonstrated that children learn and imitate
behaviors they have observed in other people.
Video on Bandura’s original studyhttp://blip.tv/bball4/albert-bandurabobo-doll-experiment-4027582
Original Study:
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bandura/bobo.htm
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Bandura's Experiments
 The children in Bandura’s
studies observed an adult
acting violently toward a Bobo
doll.
 When the children were later
allowed to play in a room with
the Bobo doll, they began to
imitate the aggressive actions
they had previously observed.
(This can be used for the
ethical considerations
question).
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Bandura's Experiments
Bandura identified three basic models of observational
learning:
 A live model, which involves an actual individual
demonstrating or acting out a behavior. (Seeing
someone perform the behavior)
What are real world examples of learning from a live
model?
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Bandura's Experiments
Three basic models of observational learning:
 A verbal instructional model, which involves
descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
What are examples of learning from a verbal
instructional model?
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Bandura's Experiments
This is the foundation of education. Thus,
students learn from teacher descriptions and
explanation. This is also true with sports, and
other verbal learning.
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Bandura's Experiments
Bandura’s three basic models of observational learning:
A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional
characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television
programs, or online media.
 Thus, you can learn how to behave in a social situation
simply from watching it on a television, or in a movie. As
young adults, are we still susceptible to learning from
symbolic models?
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Intrinsic motivation: The cognitive
component to social learning.
 Bandura noted that external, environmental
reinforcement was not the only factor to influence
learning and behavior.
 He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of
internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense
of accomplishment.
 Thus, we can create mental representations for things
that we find rewarding and gravitate towards these
behaviors.
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Learning does not necessarily
lead to a change in behavior.
 While behaviorists believed that learning led to a
permanent change in behavior, as previously
stated, observational learning demonstrates that
people can learn new information without
demonstrating new behaviors.
 In other words, you can learn something socially
without personally showing the behavior.
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Applications of Observational
Learning
 Unfortunately, Bandura’s
studies show that antisocial
models (family, neighborhood
or TV) may have antisocial
effects.
 In other words, his model
suggests that we can socially
emulate positive and negative
behaviors.
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Applications of Observational
Learning
 Unfortunately, Bandura’s
studies show that antisocial
models (family, neighborhood
or TV) may have antisocial
effects.
 In other words, his model
suggests that we can socially
emulate positive and negative
behaviors.
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Children modeling violent
behavior
• Most research has drawn from Bandura’s social learning
theory to explain the link between exposure to violence
in childhood and later perpetration of violence with an
intimate partner or child.
• Studies have demonstrated that witnessing interparental violence as a child is related to number of
negative outcomes, including violent and aggressive
behavior as an adult (Fantuzzo, DePaola,Lambert, &
Martino, 1991; Graham-Bermann & Levendosky, 1998;
Straus, Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980).
Can growing with aggressive/abusive parents act as a
model for adult behavior?
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Children modeling violent
behavior
• Most research has drawn from Bandura’s social learning
theory to explain the link between exposure to violence
in childhood and later perpetration of violence with an
intimate partner or child.
• Studies have demonstrated that witnessing interparental violence as a child is related to number of
negative outcomes, including violent and aggressive
behavior as an adult (Fantuzzo, DePaola,Lambert, &
Martino, 1991; Graham-Bermann & Levendosky, 1998;
Straus, Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980).
Can growing with aggressive/abusive parents act as a
model for adult behavior?
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Modeling violent behavior
• Murrell, Christoff, & Henning (2005) looked to
identify whether modeling behavior from your
childhood would have an impact on adult
behavior.
• The researchers chose to examine a specific
occurrence, weapon use, due to the severity of the
behavior. A main intent of this study was to raise
questions about the extensive use of weapons in
violent families.
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Murrell, Christoff, & Henning (2005)
• Participants were 362 male domestic violence
offenders court-ordered to undergo assessment of
the likelihood of recidivism.
• Selected items from the Conflict Tactics Scale
(Straus, 1979)(a way to measure psychological and
physical abuse in relationships) were used to assess
childhood witnessing and adult engagement in a
target violent behavior.
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Murrell, Christoff, & Henning (2005)
• Participants were 362 male domestic violence
offenders court-ordered to undergo assessment of
the likelihood of recidivism.
• Selected items from the Conflict Tactics Scale
(Straus, 1979)(a way to measure psychological and
physical abuse in relationships) were used to assess
childhood witnessing and adult engagement in a
target violent behavior.
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Murrell, Christoff, & Henning (2005)
• The results indicated that men who reported
witnessing threat or use of a weapon in parental
violence were more likely than not to have
threatened to use or have actually used a weapon
against an intimate partner.
• The results of this study support the supposition that
what we consciously or subconsciously learn from
our childhood experiences can shape behaviors in
adults.
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Creating negative and maladaptive
social schemas.
 Researchers argue that social experiences (whether
through live models, verbal models or symbolic models)
can cause people to form a negative (or positive)
social schema.
 These schemas, also called working models and
knowledge structures, consist of organized elements of
past behaviors and experiences that form a relatively
cohesive and persistent body of knowledge which
guides one’s subsequent perception and appraisal of
the world (Segal, 1988).
 How can our experiences (or encoding/retrieval of
memories) cause us to have negative mental
representations or models?
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Ecological validity of social
learning theory
 In addition to influencing other psychologists,
Bandura's social learning theory has had other
important implication in the field of education.
 Today, both teachers and parents recognize
the importance of modeling appropriate
behaviors: as well as creating positive social
schemas that guide behavior.
 Many children have been shown to learn social
schemas from teacher and parent models.
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Further research on social and cultural
affects on cognitive processes
 SOCIAL LEARNING AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR: A SPECIFIC TEST
OF A GENERAL THEORY (RONALDL. AKERS,M ARVIND .
KROHNL, ONNL ANZA-KADUCE)
http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/pb/thornberry/socy7004/pdfs/Social%20Learni
ng%20and%20Deviant%20Behavior.pdf
 Cultural Influences in Decision Making: David F. Noble,
Ph.D., Jonathan K. Sander, Catherine M. Obenshain
http://www.dodccrp.org/events/5th_ICCRTS/papers/Track5/085.pdf
 Cultural Influences on Memory: Angela H. Gutchess and
Allie Indeck
http://www.brandeis.edu/gutchess/publications/Gutchess_Indeck.pdf
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