Transcript Handbook of Language & Ethnicity Chapter 20: Scandinavia

Handbook of
Language &
Ethnicity
Chapter 20: Scandinavia
By Leena Huss &
Anna-Riita Lindgren
• Denmark (Danish)
– Faroes (Faroese +
Danish)
– Greenland (Inuit + Danish)
• Finland (Finnish +
Swedish + Sámi)
– Åland Islands (Swedish)
• Sweden (Swedish +
Finnish + Sámi)
• Norway (Norwegian +
Finnish + Sámi)
• [Finnish minorities are
Tornedalian/Kven and
also 20th c immigrants]
• There are also
heterogeneous
immigrants (10% in
Sweden, 1.4% in Finland)
Languages of
the Nordic
Countries
Ethnic Revival
• Sámi movement began in 1950s and has
become more vigorous; struggle against the Alta
dam in 1970s and 1980s led to massive protests
and organization; they lost the battle but made
the majority take them seriously
• Tornedalian/Kven begin their movement in
1970s/80s
• Ethnic revival “forces the majorities to reassess
their thoughts and actions”
Minority Movements as
Emancipation Politics
• Emancipation politics restructures
hierarchies
• In Nordic countries these are
gradual reformations, not
revolutions
• 19th c nationalism emancipated
Faroese, Finnish, and Norwegian,
which had previously been
dominated by Swedish and Danish
• But as some identities were
formed, they in turn persecuted
others, targeting them with
assimilation policies
Revitalization of minority languages
• This begins in 1960s
• Ethnic activists do not strive for a state or
monolingualism, they wish to develop their
cultures without being stigmatized
• Aims are pluralistic state, tolerance,
internationalism
• There have been some backlash
phenomena, especially anti-Sámi groups
in Norway and Finland
Language and Identity
in Nordic Countries
• Ethnic revival:
– Arctic minorities (Sámi & Tornedalian/Kven) in
Norway, Sweden, Finland
• Sámi in Norway & Tornedalians (both 40K) > Sámi
in Sweden (20K) > Kven (10,000) > Sámi in
Finland (6,500)
– Sweden Finns (Finnish immigrants in
Sweden; 400K, an urban minority)
Where are the Tornedalians?
• Who are the Kven?
Ethnic Minorities in
the Arctic Areas
• Multiculturalism and multilingualism was
the norm, though one’s living was gained
through the native language
• Late 19th c countries adopted assimilation
policies
• Modernization came after WWII, brought
schooling (often boarding schools),
transportation, media -- integrated Arctic
into the nation-states
Ethnic Minorities in
the Arctic Areas, cont’d.
• Laestadianism (religious movement) promoted
minority languages and opposed modernization
& assimilation
• Building of the welfare state addressed poverty
and inequality by treating all the same >
assimilation
• Modernization did not come at the same time
everywhere -- in coastal areas where it came
earlier, there was more assimilation/loss of
language -- where it came later, ethnic revival
came soon enough to save culture
Ethnic Minorities in
the Arctic Areas, cont’d.
• Ethnic revival redefined democracy to
include pluralism, guaranteeing right to
ethnic identity along with citizenship
• 1970s -- realization that modernization
was destroying the environment
• Minority cultures gained respect for their
knowledge of sustainable use of the Arctic
On Identity Strategies and
Language
• Many minority people have migrated out of
traditional areas to cities, where there is less
access to minority language in school
• Great individual variation between ethnic
activists who choose to use minority language
and others who try to cover up their ethnicity
• Usually the minority language is not used as a
written language, except by a very few, though
this is changing
On Identity Strategies and
Language, cont’d.
• What is the “real” minority culture? Is it confined
to the old traditions of previous generations?
• Stereotype of minority culture focuses on the
past, not on the present reality, creating a
tension
• Minorities should have the right to modernize
without compromising their identity
• At the same time, past traditions need to be
valued, rather than seen as “primitive”
On the Identity of the Group and
the Language
• Establishment of ethnonyms
– Rehabilitation of formerly pejorative “Kven”
– “Lapp” > “Sámi”
• Development of written languages
• Acknowledgement of status of languages
– Kven/Tornedalian as a separate language, not
a dialect of Finnish
The Sweden Finns
• Debate and confusion over bilingualism
– Studies showed benefits of bilingualism, but
– Parents were often encouraged to use majority
language with children, even if they spoke it badly
• 1976 Swedish Home Language Reform -immigrant & minority children have right to
receive instruction in the language that is
“a living part of the home environment”
– But in reality, this policy was assimilationist, merely
providing transition to majority language
– 1980s-90s both activist and anti-pluralist groups have
gained strength and home-language instruction has
been reduced -- “Swedish-only” ideology & recession
Sweden Finnish
Minority Identity
• Sweden Finns are the largest minority group in
Scandinavia, and Swedish-Finnish cooperation
is historically strong, yet Sweden Finns are
strongly stigmatized, despite support from EU
and even from Swedes in Finland
• Proposed creation of Sweden Finnish
Parliament (like Finland Swedish Parliament and
the Sámi Parliaments)
• Some have tried to establish private schools for
Finnish in Sweden
• 1975 Sweden Finnish Language Board deals
with issues of variance from standard Finnish
Ethnic Languages and
Minority Populations
• Scandinavian speakers (Swedes, Danes,
Norwegians) share a linguistic unity, and
all others are in a linguistically weaker
situation
• There is some debate over the role of
English as a language of Nordic
cooperation
Summary
• Assimilation has been challenged by ethnic
revival
• Ethnic revival aims for pluralistic, multilingual
society (at odds with nationalism)
• Schooling, media, and public life play crucial role
in minority language survival
• Creating “a world tolerant of linguistic and ethnic
diversity” is a challenge for the future