Transcript Chap.2 The Ecosystem (I) 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立台南大學 環境與生態學院 2008年2月至6月

Chap.2 The Ecosystem (I)
鄭先祐 (Ayo)
國立台南大學 環境與生態學院
2008年2月至6月
The Ecosystem
1. Concept of the ecosystem and ecosystem
management (生態體系與經營管理)
2. Trophic structure(營養結構) of the ecosystem
3. Gradients (梯度) and ecotones
4. Examples of ecosystems
5. Ecosystem diversity (多樣性)
6. Study of ecosystems
2. the ecosystem (I)
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7. Biological control of the geochemical
environment: the Gaia hypothesis (蓋雅假說)
8. Global production and decomposition
9. Microcosms, mesocosms, and macrocosms
10. Ecosystem cybernetic
11. Techno-ecosystems (技術生態體系)
12. Concept of the ecological footprint (生態足跡)
13. Classification of ecosystems
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1 Concept of the Ecosystem and
Ecosystem management
 ecosystem = a functional unit
 the first unit in the ecological hierarchy that is
complete– that has all the components necessary for
survival.
Ecosystem = IE + S + OE
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Fig. 2-1 Ecosystem model.
Explanation
Biocoenosis (Karl Mobius, 1877)
Geobiocoenosis (Russian ecologist)
Tansley(1935), first proposed, ecosystem
H. W. Odum (1936), a social scientist, holistic
concept of regionalism
Machlis et al. (1997), Force and Machlis (1997),
human ecosystem
 Combining biological ecology and social theories as a
basis for practical ecosystem management.
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Ecosystem
Ecosystem ecology
Bertalanffy (1950, 1968), E. P. Odum (1953),
H. T. Odum (1971)
Biosystem,
Thienemann (1939)
Noosystem
Vernadskij (1945)
Holon
Koestler (1969)
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
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Fig. 2-2 Functional diagram
Ecosystem 的差異，取決於
1.
2.
3.
4.
Size of the system
Metabolic intensity
Autotrophic-heterotrophic balance
Stage of development
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生態科學(Ecosciences) 的發展史 (一)
補充教材
 1970s Conservation + Landscape + Restoration(復育)
 1960s Ecology 才逐漸被認為是重要的「科學」。
 1950s 各自發展屬於自己領域的「人類生態學」。
 1940s
Social ecology + Cultural ecology
 1930s
 1920s 生態學的理論基礎
 1910s Animal Ecology + Human Ecology (人類生態學)
 1900s Ecology 成為「生物學」中三大部之一。
 1866 Haeckel, Ernst : 第一個使用 Ecology
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生態科學(Ecosciences) 的發展史 (二)
補充教材
 2000s Business Ecology + Information Ecology +
Knowledge Ecology + 大學系所(doctoral degree)
 1990s Journal of Industrial Ecology + Eco-efficiency
 1980s Eco-Industrial park + Deep Ecology + Spiritual
Ecology + Radical ecology + Ecoethics
 1970s Industrial Ecology + Conservation + Landscape
+ Restoration (復育) + EIA
 1960s Ecology 才逐漸被認為是重要的「科學」。
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2. Trophic structure of the
Ecosystem
Trophic structure
 Autotrophic stratum (green belt)
 Heterotrophic stratum (brown belt)
Ecosystem
 Inorganic substances (無機物質)
 Organic compounds (有機分子)
 Air, water, and substrate environment (including
climate regime)
 Producers (生產者)
 Phagotrophs (heterotrophic organisms) (異營者)
 Saprotrophs (decomposers) (分解者)
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Explanation
Detritus, organic matter (碎屑)
POM (particulate organic matter) (顆粒的)
DOM (dissolved organic matter) (溶解的)
VOM (volatile organic matter) (氣體的)
Heterotrophic
Microconsumers (bacteria, fungi, and others)
Macroconsumers
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3. Gradients and Ecotones
Zonation, Gradients
The biosphere is characterized by a series of
gradients, or zonation, of physical factors.
Ecotones (生態過渡區，交會區)
 juxtaposition of different habitats (棲地), or
ecosystem types.
Edge effects (edge species)
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Fig. 2-3 (A) Vegetation-based zonation in the
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mountains of western North America.
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補充教材
東埔-八通關沿線植被
摘取自：陳玉峰(1995)台灣植被誌。
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潮間帶
有光區
海溝、海脊
大陸棚
深海平原
Fig. 2-3 (B) Horizontal and vertical zonation in the sea.
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表水層
溫水層
深水層
Fig. 2-3 Zonation of a pond based on thermal
stratification during the summer months.
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4. Examples of Ecosystems
 A pond and an old field
 The watershed concept
 Agroecosystems
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A pond and an old field
 Abiotic substances (有機和無機物質)
 Producer organisms
Pond, macrophytes and phytoplankton(浮游植物)
 Consumer organisms
Primary, secondary (carnivores), tertiary
Detritivores
 Decomposer organisms
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Community metabolism
 light-and-dark bottle technique
 placed in paired bottles, at different depths.
 測定水中溶氧量，經過24小時，再測定一次。
黑瓶內的，代表總呼吸量的消耗
亮瓶內的，是淨所得的量 (生產量扣除消耗量)
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5-10 g O2/m2 (5-10ppm) of
excess oxygen production
indicate a healthy condition
岸邊區
約3公尺深
Fig. 2-3 Metabolic zonation of a pond based on productivity
and respiration.
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Aquatic vs. terrestrial
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The watershed concept
 cultural eutrophication (優養化)
 small watershed technique
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Agroecosystems
 Solar-powered ecosystems.
1. Auxiliary energy (labor, fertilizers, pesticides,
irrigation water, fuel-powered machinery)
2. Diversity of organisms is greatly reduced
3. Under artificial selection
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World wide
 Agroecosystems, 30% of the world’s ice-free
land area


10% is cropland.
20% is pasture, 畜牧
 Three types
1. Pre-industrial agriculture (self-sufficient and labor
intensive) (60% of the world’s croplands)
2. Conventional or industrial agriculture
3. Alternative agriculture
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Fig. 2-5 A diagram depicting a natural, unsubsidized, solar2. the ecosystem
(I) pre-industrial agroecosystems.
powered
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Fig. 2-5 B. Diagram depicting a human-subsidized, solar2. the ecosystem
(I) industrial agroecosystem.
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Fig. 2-5 C. Example of a low-input, sustainable agroecosystem.
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Pre-industrial agriculture
 Three types
1. Pastoralism (遊牧)
2. Shifting agriculture (轉移式農業)(燒墾式農業)
3. Flood irrigation (洪水灌溉) (古埃及的尼羅河
農業)
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補充教材
表 13. 各種不同農業科技之能量(kcal/ 公頃)進出。蘭嶼雅美人以外資料, 參考 Pinentel and Pime
1979。
農業系統別 Nigerian 玉
墨西哥
Iban
Tsebage
(kcal/ 公頃)
米農耕 稻米農耕 Maring 燒墾 玉米農耕
項目
美國
玉米農耕
蘭嶼雅美
芋薯燒墾
1. 人力
319,300
625,615
686,300
494,950
5,580
400,500
2.工具
3.石化燃料和電力
4.營養物和化學物
5.灌溉
16,570
0
183,300
16,570
0
0
16,960
0
0
16,860
0
0
558,000
2,084,709
2,543,830
16,860
0
0
0
0
0
0
780,000
0
36,608
0
392,040
0
36,000
0
36,000
0
525,000
34,952
36,000
0
＊總輸入
555,778 1,034,225
739,160
548,410
6,532,071
453,360
＊生產量
3,564,200 7,318,080
6.種子
7.運輸
＊生產量 / 人力
＊生產量 / 總輸入
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11,384,462 6,901,200
19,148,700 4,025,000
11.2
11.7
16.6
13.9
3,431.7
10.05
6.4
7.1
15.4
12.5
2.9
8.9
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§ 『古埃及文明』的自然條件
地理位置：
補充教材
 位於 Nile River, 有兩個源頭
 Blue Nile, 起源於 Ethiopia
 White Nile, 起源於 East Africa 的 Lake Region
 結合於 Khartoum, 流2,500公里, 入地中海
特點：
 洪水來和退的時間，非常可靠；每年七月慢慢來，於十月即
慢慢退回。
 土地坡度，比 Sumer大 (約是兩倍) -- 可沖刷鹽份。
沒有壩的河水流遍整個農地，農地的肥沃力永在 (持
續五千年)。
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5. Ecosystem diversity
 Ecosystem diversity
1.
2.
3.
4.
Genetic diversity,
species diversity,
habitat diversity, and
the diversity of functional processes
 Diversity
1. Richness or variety component
2. Relative abundance
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Explanation
 Core-satellite species hypothesis
 Core species are common and widespread
in distribution
 Satellite species are rare and local in
distribution.
 Diversity 的表示
1. Index (數值)
2. Dominance-diversity curves (圖形)
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Diversity 的數值
Shannon index
H = – ∑ Pi LogPi
Pielou evenness index
 e = H / ln S
Margalef index
D= S – 1/ln N
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豐度
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勻度
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Fig. 2-6 B. Comparison of dominancediversity curves for two tropical forests
and two temperate forests.
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6. Study of Ecosystem
Two approaches
The holological approach (holos = whole)
The merological approach (meros = part)
Two alternate approaches
Top-down approaches
bottom-up approaches
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7. Biological control of the geochemical
environment: the Gaia hypothesis
The Gaia hypothesis,
Organisms, especially microorganisms, have
evolved with the physical environment to
provide an intricate(複雜的), self-regulatory
control system that keeps conditions favorable
for life on Earth (Lovelock, 1979)
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Fig. 2-8 Comparison of the major components of the
atmosphere on the planets Earth, Mars, and Venus.
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§ 地球的生命力量 （Gaia 假說）
補充教材
表 1. 比較火星、金星和地球(現況與假設完全無生命存在過)的大氣狀況。
項目
火星
金星
地球(無生命)
95%
98%
98%
1.9%
極微量
1.9%
極微量
477℃
290+50℃
地球(現況)
大氣成份
二氧化碳
氮氣
2.7%
氧氣
0.13%
-53℃
地表平均溫度
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0.03%
79%
21%
13℃
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維生環境的形成與組成
地球誕生時，並沒有生命，至約30億年前才開始
有簡單的生物出現，一直至20億年前，簡單的生
物必須生存於沒有氧氣，含有致命的紫外線、有
毒的氣體、以及溫度變化極大的環境中。
約在20億年前，藍綠藻(cyanobacteria)的出現，
才有光合作用，產生氧氣，逐漸改變大氣環境，
下降大氣中的二氧化碳濃度。
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地球的形成
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生物對地球大氣形成的影響
The earth began with no atmosphere and no
oceans.
Today, the earth’s atmosphere contains a stable
concentration of about 20%oxygen. 不會太高，
若高於25%，濕的木材也會燃火；不會太低，若
是低於15%，則燃火就很困難。
Perhaps the most important innovation of living
things in the history of life on earth was the
development of photosynthesis.
最早的光合作用可能是作用在
H2S + CO2→ CH2O + S2
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從運用H2S 轉變到運用H2O
Because H2S was scarce, photochemical
processes that employed the splitting of water
(H2O) were favored. 因此逐漸演化為：H2O +
CO2 → CH2O + O2
因為氧氣的出現，而顯著的影響大氣環境。
約有10億年，光合作用產生的氧氣都耗用在氧
化反應上。首先是海洋中的鐵離子(Fe 2+ )，轉
變成氧化鐵沉積海底。
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光合作用產生的氧氣
於15億年至20億年前，光合作用產生的氧氣量
超過氧化海中鐵離子的量，氧氣才開始在大氣中
累積。(Figure 3-1)
真核(eukaryotic )生物約在13億年前出現。當時
大氣的氧氣量約只有現在的1%。
目前地球有58%的氧是形成氧化鐵(Fe2O3)，
38%是與岩石(SO4 2- )結合成大陸紅床(red beds)，
只有4%進入大氣。
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釋放至大
氣的氧分
子，只有
4%。
 Fig. 3.1 Oxygen released by photosynthesis has accumulated on earth
steadily through geologic time, but the occurrence of molecular oxygen
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in the
atmosphere is a relatively recent event.
圖1. 地球大氣的氧氣之產生。
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圖2 (c) 火山口的另一個區域。水
溫只有15oC。大型的多毛蟲
圖2. (B) 於1,500公尺深
的海底，熱水的噴出，
水溫高達335oC。噴口
有笠貝雨水底軟體蟲。
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Essay 海底的特殊生活方式
於近Galapagos 島嶼的深海底，沒有陽光。但有
許多生物在此地區生活。
這個地區的能量是來自地熱，有機物質是源自細
菌分解 H2S，而不是H2O。
類似這種生活，分散在全球多處深海底。
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the ecosystem (I)
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Essay 海底的特
殊生活方式
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Human being
 Human attempt to modify the physical
environment to meet their immediate
needs, but in doing so we are increasingly
shortsighted.
Global climate change
 We depend on the natural environment
(life-support ecosystem)(維生體系)
Restoration ecology
The science of ecosystem health
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問題與討論
[email protected]
Ayo 台南站：http://mail.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/
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