ORIGINS OF FARMING Present Knowledge & Debates Diane Gifford-Gonzalez

Professor, Anthropology - UCSC Curator, Monterey Bay Archaeology Archives Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

MATERIALS COVERED

Transitions: foraging to farming Present views on why farming began Southwest Asian (“Near Eastern”) archaeological evidence Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Took Place Before Written Records Only way to study is archaeologically

Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Origins of Farming: Sources of Theory & Data

 Theory drawn from modern cases  Ecological theory  Human ecology  hunter-gathers and farmers  Social theory  Data and theory relating to past  Paleoclimatology  Paleoethnobotany  Zooarchaeology Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Transitions to Farming

7 geographically independent cases of regional plant & animal species domestication Southwest Asia (a.k.a. Near East) Sahelian/Saharan Africa North China South China/Southeast Asia North America (Mississippi/Ohio Rivers) Mesoamerica South America All between 12,000 and 2500 years ago

Homo sapiens

existed ~200K years prior as hunter gatherers Allowed/forced many transitions in human life Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Human Transitions Due to Farming:

Demographic

(Archaeological Site Density, Population Estimates) Global Human Population Levels 10,000 yrs bp

7 - 9 million

PRESENT

>6.5 billion

Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Transitions Due to Farming:

Ecological

(Theory & Modern Forager vs Farmer Ecology) Predation (+/-) --> Mutualism (+/+) mutualism present in nature (ants & aphids, etc.) Natural Ecosystem --> Agroecosystem high species diversity --> low species diversity Resilient Food Systems --> Unresilient 100's species --> heavy dependence on few species 75% of humanity depend on 8 species 95% rely on 30 food species famine therefore a common risk Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Transitions Due to Farming:

Medical

(Paleopathology & Modern Foragers vs Farmers) Less malnutrition --> more malnutrition Less infectious disease --> more disease sanitation-related (feces, etc.) density-related (critical mass of hosts) animal-related (proximity over longer spans) domestic animals (smallpox, cholera, SARS) parasites (rats & plague, mosquitos & malaria) Low rate metabolic disorders --> higher high carbohydrate diet: obesity, diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Transitions Due to Farming:

Social

(Archaeology & Modern Foragers vs Farmers) Small-scale --> large-scale societies

living with strangers

Mobile --> sedentary societies Conflict mediated interpersonally or by moving away --> conflict mediated by laws, specialists (judges), even warfare Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Transitions Due to Farming:

Social

(

Modern Foragers vs Farmers) Egalitarian ideologies --> less egalitarian Shared resource rights --> exclusive rights both are ‘risk-reduction strategies’ in their contexts More female autonomy --> relatively less women’s control of own production, marriage, and reproduction is the norm in hunter-gatherer groups Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Why People Started To Farm: The Puzzle

Modern foragers don't work as hard as farmers do for a living, even in marginal environments.

Therefore: older “progress” model for origins of farming (big advance over hunting and gathering),

is not supported by the ethnographic evidence

.

Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

The Puzzle Continues…

Wild cereals & legumes (common domestic plants) are “2nd choice” foods for modern foragers require more time & equipment to process, relative to preferred foods contemporary studies of time/energy expenditures Therefore: Older idea that grains and legumes were domesticated because they were better or more convenient

is not supported by the evidence

Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Another Piece of the Puzzle

Human bones from pre-farming phases show people were generally healthier & better nourished than their farming descendants Therefore: Older idea that population pressure (“people were starving”) drove people into farming

the evidence.

is not supported by

Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

If all this is so, why

DID

people start farming?

Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

“Ingredients” of Early Farming:

1.

Climatic Variability & Risk Reduction

At end of Ice Age, climate got warmer and moister

BUT

More

variable

and

less predictable

, especially in semi-arid latitudes locales of many transitions to farming Hunter gatherers needed to

reduce risk

food shortages in bad years of What were their options?

Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Risk Reduction Options

1.

In times of stress, emigrate to seek food @ end of Ice Age , some foragers' large home ranges

were too closely “packed”

did not allow risk-reduction by emigration 2.

Stay put and use more 2nd & 3rd choice food grains, legumes, nuts and roots w/ toxic substances (acorns, manioc, yams) more labor-intensive to process , but very common Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

2. Some 2nd-Choice Plants

Coevolve

and

Increase Yields for Humans

Some species evolve quickly under intensive harvesting: “weedy colonizers” flourish in disturbed habitats landslides, flood silts, broken-up soil @ human camps, trash dumps very dense wild stands hard seeds can be stored Natural mutations selected for by humans mutation: seed head that does not shatter when ripe maladaptive in wild reproduction, harvesters who plant its seeds but “rewards” “for” the plant Annual generation turnover permits swift changes Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

‘Positive Feedback’ with Some Plants Change in the species -> more human food encourages more human use selecting for more evolutionary change more food increase, more use, etc.

High seed yields lead to mass food storage But mass storage lowers human mobility Kent Flannery:

“Where are you going to go with a metric ton of wheat?”

Sedentism: lessened mobility over the year Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

3. Sedentism & Population Growth

Sedentism relaxes pressure for wide inter-birth spacing typical of foragers Population growth --> more use of 2nd choice foods, etc. another positive feedback loop More time and energy spent encouraging altered species to thrive open up more habitat for them eliminate their predators and competitors Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

4. Irreversible Habitat Alteration

Encouraging altered species undermines other wild foods cannot fall back on other wild food species in crisis more dependence on the altered food species Risk reduction favors emergence of true farming more intensified practices to get higher, more dependable yields from altered species even more dependence on the altered species, etc. Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

5. Ecosystem to Agroecosystem

Altered natural ecosystem now agroecosystem its own flow of energy, with human labor and other inputs People

ARE NOW FARMERS

Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

ORIGINS OF FARMING Southwest Asian Evidence 18,000 - 3750 B.C.

Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

Environmental Setting

Semiarid climate, winter rainfall Native ranges of wild ancestors of wheat barley flax pistachios peas garbanzos almonds dates apricots goats sheep pigs cattle Dogs already domesticated >10K B.C

.

Cats domesticate humans ~6K B.C.

Egypt Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

18,000 - 10,000 B.C.

End of Ice Age

Rainfall and temperature increase Woodland-grassland habitat expands Humans settle former deserts (Sinai, Negev) Shallow sites --> high mobility foraging Ecofacts: larger and small game Artifacts: similar to earlier but some mortars, pestles show seed gathering and processing is intensifying Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

10,000 - 8,000 B.C.

Climate moister, warmer than present Sites reflect semi-sedentary lifestyle stone-built houses, repeated occupation, storage pits outside houses in common space Sites double in number, increase in size population growth Ecofacts: no domestic plants, animals, more waterfowl, fish, shellfish Artifacts: many harvesting and processing tools Burials in houses (few burials earlier) Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

8500 -7600 B.C.

Climate as before: warmer, moister than today Strong continuity in artifacts, house forms, etc.

Large sites (>8 acres area) + smaller sites Sites located near springs and cultivable land Ecofacts: rare domestic morphology grains, wild animals only Evidence of wide trade: Turkey to Red Sea interregional communication Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

7600 - 6000 B.C.

Increase in number & size of sites (>20 acres) population increase Reorganization of living space in settlements square, multiroomed houses w/ courtyards, walls storage pits inside houses Ecofacts: much domestic sheep & goat , some wild game domestic wheat, barley, peas, & lentils wild plant remains still common Artifacts: grinding equipment and sickle blades predominate Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

6000 - 5000 B.C.

Climate markedly drier, desert expands Sites shift from open to woodland zones colonize previously unfarmed regions Continuity of settlement organization, shift in burial: houses to cemeteries near settlements Ecofacts: more productive domestic wheat & barley; domestic pigs, cattle, sheep and goats, few wild animals Artifacts: first pottery , relatively more farming tools, fewer hunting tools Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

5000 - 3750 B.C

.

Settlement form and size remains same, but the number of sites doubles inferred jump in population levels Modern bread wheat & barley plus flax (linen, linseed oil) forms widespread, all require high water input: irrigation irrigation only possible on some land rich/poor differentiation based on land quality?

Hunting & gathering minimal input to food supply Full emergence of a stable agroecosystem Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]

5000 - 3750 B.C., Pt. 2

Occupational diversification: villages specialize ceramic, stone, and animal production First large temples, cities in Levant, Mesopotamia architecture suggests occupational and class differentiation farmers, priests, craft specialists, traders Artifacts in graves & houses reflect differential access to rare or exotic goods status differentiation Beginnings of record-keeping in temples, etc.

taxes, trade transactions, loans, lawsuits Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, UC Santa Cruz [email protected]