Transcript Document 7355908

Revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 1848
• Origins of 1848
• All of Europe save Britain and Russia
long-term causes
-impact of Industrial and French Revolution
-growth of middle-class and industrial
proletariat
-Europe in transition
– Emerging and entrenchment of “Isms”
Revolutions of 1848
• short-term causes
-demographic and economic crisis
-industrial and agricultural depression
-land hunger, unemployment, urban
squalor, seigneurial jurisdiction,
property qualifications.
Revolutions of 1848
• Inflexible Government
a. France
-Louis Philippe, the bourgeois monarch
-republican versus radical demands
-the banquets of 1847-48
-Louis Blanc and the National
Workshops
-the 'June Days'
Republicanism run amok, again and a
new Napoleon
Revolutions of 1848
• "Germany"
-the quest for a reformed and unified
Germany
- Emigration
- Seigneurial stranglehold
- Material over humanitarian needs
Revolutions of 1848
•
•
•
•
•
IV. The Turning Point that Failed to Turn?
-liberalism, nationalism, and socialism here to stay
-some important concessions and reforms (slavery)
-middle-class a force to be reckoned with from now on
-rift not only between upper and middle-class, but between
middle-class and lower as well
• -with reform thwarted, lower orders (workers and women)
begin to organize socialist, trade union, and feminist
movement
• -national unity not in the cards for Germany
Crimean War
• Decay of the Ottoman Empire, a
development fraught with explosive
implications for the European balance of
power.
• Control of the straits between the Black Sea
and the Mediterranean Sea.
Crimean War
• The Russians moved toward the
establishment of a unilateral protectorate
over the Ottoman Empire.
• Britain and France viewed the possibility of
Russian control of the straits as a threat to
their own interests in the Middle East, and
many in those countries despised Russia as
the despotic enemy of liberalism.
Crimean War
• The immediate pretext for Russian intervention was a
dispute between Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians
over control of the holy places in Palestine, which was part
of the Ottoman Empire. In December 1852 the Ottoman
sultan, responding to French pressure, decided in favor of
the Roman Catholics. Nicholas, the protector of
Orthodoxy, quickly dispatched a mission to Constantinople
(now İstanbul, Turkey), aiming at a new settlement in
favor of the Orthodox and a treaty guaranteeing the rights
of the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire.
Crimean War
• The European powers attempted to arrange a
compromise, but this proved futile. On October 4,
confident of British and French support, the
Ottoman government declared war.
• On November 30 a Russian attack destroyed the
Ottoman fleet at the Black Sea port of Sinope,
resulting in a public outcry in Britain and France.
In March 1854, after Russia ignored their demand
to evacuate Moldavia and Walachia, Britain and
France declared war.
Crimean War
• The allies then decided on a campaign
against Sevastopol' in the Crimea,
headquarters of Russia's Black Sea Fleet.
• Finally, on September 9, 1855, Sevastopol'
fell, but only after Austria threatened to
enter the war did Russia agree to make
peace.
Crimean War
• The Treaty of Paris, signed on March 30,
1856, was a major setback for Russia's
Middle Eastern policy.
Crimean War
•
•
•
•
•
“Charge of the Light Brigade,”
The British nurse Florence Nightingale
Break up of the Congress of Vienna
The myth of Russian might was laid to rest
Breakup of the old coalition permitted
Germany and Italy to free themselves from
Austrian influence and emerge as nations in
the decade that followed.
Italian Unification
Italy was divided into
fragments at the Congress of
Vienna
Reason - Italians supported
Napoleon and hated
Austrians
Results: Restored Austrian
domination on peninsula
Italian Unification
There were three obstacles to
unity:
1. Austrian control of Lombardy
and Venetia
2. Papal States cut the North off
from the South –control by France
3. Existence of several
independent states:
1. Kingdom of Sardinia
2. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
3. Duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and
Modena
(all under Habsburg control)
Italian Unification
Nationalism before 1848
-Limited to aristocracy and middle
class
-Carbonari - the largest
Nationalistic secret society.
Romantic Republicans. Giuseppe
Mazzinni was its leading
spokesperson
Italian Unification
Guisseppe Mazzini
-"Heart of Unification” -- The
Nation State
-Created and led Young Italy
-1831 founded “Young Italy
Society”, Revolutionary group to
break control of Austria
-Spread nationalism and
Republicanism
-Goals: Education and insurrection
Camillo Cavour
• Prime Minister of Piedmont – Cavour
• Piedmont was buffer between France and Austria
• Only region to survive the pressures to
restore a monarchy and maintain it
• King Victor Emanuel replaces King Charles Albert
and appoints Cavour P.M. in 1852
• Known as "the brain" of unification
• Used "real politik“ – playing off Fr. And Austria
• -#1 goal was unification of Italy
Italian Unification
• New Pope Pius IV started
reforms to stop revolutions but
only resulted in increased
tension - 1846
• -Intensity culminated in
Revolutions of 1848
• 1. First revolution in Kingdom of
2 Sicilies
• 2. One in Papal States November 1848
• 3. Sardinia revolted against
Austrian occupation of Italy
Opening Victories
• War against Austria
• -Cavour wanted to secure support of Napoleon III of France
• -Cavour and Napoleon III agree secretly to a war against
• Austria
• -Spring 1859 - Cavour led Austrians to declare an ultimatum
• demanding disarmament of Sardinia --->France and Italy
• declare war on Austria
• -The Austrians defeated at Battle of Magenta and Battle of
• Solferino
Coming on Side
• 1859 – Parma, Modena, Tuscany and the
Romagna provinces voted to unite with
Piedmont
Garibaldi and Southern Unification
• Garibaldi and Southern Unification
• -Garibaldi was called "the sword" of
• unification because he used force to unify
• southern Italy.
• -Garibaldi's Red Shirts
• -May 1860: Attained Sicily with just over
• 1000 volunteers->RED SHIRTS
• -September 1860: Then the Red Shirts
• conquered Naples, Palermo
Garibaldi and Southern Unification
• -Garibaldi continued conquering the rest of
Southern Italy
• -Sardinia remained neutral until…
Garibaldi was about to enter Rome
• -Sardinia did not want to anger France
So Cavour met Garibaldi at Rome
Unification Complete
• Completion of Italian Unification
• Cavour, under permission of Napoleon III, invades
Papal States (2/3 vote to join Sardinia)
• Naples and Sicily voted to join Sardinia,
• completing southern unification
• -March 17, 1861: an all Italian parliament
• proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy
• -First King: Victor Emmanuel
• -First Prime Minister: Cavour
German Unification
• The Holy Roman Empire at the Peace of
Westphalia, 1648, recognizing over 300
independent states.
German Unification
• By the start of the French Revolution in 1789,
many of the German states had consolidated and
Prussia (Brandenburg) had grown greatly in size
and strength.
German Unification
• Napoleon's conquests consolidated
several German states and created the
Confederation of the Rhine.
German Unification
• The German Confederation was formed by the Congress of Vienna
in 1815 consisting of 38 states including German-speaking Austria.
The Confederation was dominated by Klemens von Metternich
and Austria and designed to limit the growth of German
nationalism which Metternich regarded as destructive to the
Austrian Empire.
German Unification
• Napoleon's conquests destroyed the Holy Roman Empire (1806)
and unified many western German states in his Confederation of
the Rhine.
An upsurge of German national consciousness to unite
and oppose foreign rule:
• Johann Fichte
•
the Grimm brothers and
• Ludwig van Beethoven
•
• Prussia gained popular support as the powerful
German state which had compromised the least with
Napoleon and the French. Prussia gained much
territory especially in the Rhineland as a result of the
Napoleonic Wars.
German Unification
• The German Diet, the legislature of the German Confederation,
passed Metternich's Carlsbad Decrees to suppress nationalism,
1819. Nationalist demonstrations were banned and the student
groups, the Burschenschaften, were suppressed. Metternich and
the Austrian Empire clearly opposed any effort at the unification
of Germany.
The "Zollverein" (a tariff union of German states led by
Prussia and excluding Austria) was formed, 1818-1844.
The Zollverein brought increasing trade and
communication among the many German states. It
also made Prussia the leader in the national
cooperation movement.
German Unification
• The ouster of Metternich during the
Revolt of 1848 weakened Austrian
control over the German Confederation.
The revolt intensified German
nationalism and weakened the Austrian
Empire by raising the consciousness of its
subject nationalities.
German Unification
• After threats from both Austria and Russia and
believing the Prussian army too weak, Frederick
William IV rejected the liberal constitution and crown
of united Germany.
• This defeat, known as the "humiliation of Olmütz",
caused many liberals, including the major leaders of
the movement, to flee the German states. The
leadership of the nationalist movement passed into
conservative hands.
German Unification
• The successes of the Italians in their defeat of Austria in
1859-1860 encouraged the growth of German
nationalism. It also increased support for the
"Kleindeutsch" faction that supported Prussian
leadership of the nationalist movement over that of
Austria, the "Grossdeutsch" faction.
The Prussian army was reformed beginning
in 1860 bringing new strength and
confidence in that nation's military.
German Unification
• Otto von Bismarck was made Chancellor of Prussia in 1862.
• Bismarck's goal was to create a united German Empire with the
King of Prussia as its Emperor (Kaiser).
Bismarck dismissed members of the Prussian lower
house, the "Landtag" in 1863 in a conflict over finances
and army reforms. Using the strength of the nation as
the core issue, Bismarck strengthened the Prussian
monarchy in the process.
German Unification
German Unification
• Austria and Prussia defeated Denmark in 1864 in a war to secure
the provinces of Schleswig-Holstein. According to the settlement,
Schleswig and Holstein were to be ruled jointly by Prussia and
Austria. The war unified liberals and conservatives on the issue of
German nationalism.
Arguments over the joint governing of Schlesswig and Holstein brought war
between Prussian and Austria in 1866. Prussia defeated Austria in the "Seven
Weeks War".
The Treaty of Prague pushed Austria out of the German unification movement
German Unification
• The new North German Confederation was formed
uniting all of the northern German states under
Prussian domination. The southern German states still
remained sovereign and independent.
• The formation of the Dual Monarchy of AustriaHungary in 1867 further weakened Austria. Hungary
had the power to make decisions on warfare and had
gained the right to refuse to fight in any war for
German nationalism or territory.
The Ems Telegraph
• “After the news of the renunciation of the Prince von Hohenzollern
had been communicated to the Imperial French government by the
Royal Spanish government, the French Ambassador in Ems made a
further demand on His Majesty the King that he should authorize
him to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King undertook for all
time never again to give his assent should the Hohenzollerns once
more take up their candidature. His Majesty the King thereupon
refused to receive the Ambassador again and had the latter informed
by the adjutant of the day that His Majesty had no further
communication to make to the Ambassador."
German Unification
• In July 1870, France declared war on Prussia. The
French declaration of war invoked the German alliance
and the southern German states united with Prussia
against France. This Prussian-led alliance of German
states fought and decisively defeated France.
German Unification
•
The German Empire was proclaimed in the
Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles on
January 18, 1871. King William (Wilhelm) I of
Prussia became first "Kaiser" (emperor) of the
united German Empire.
The Dual Monarchy
• The Habsburg Empire one the last
remaining Dynastic, Absolutist and
Agrarian states
• 1848 Rev. - Reassertion of Absolutism
• Francis Joseph (1848-1916) Attempts to
impose a centralized administration.
• Reacted to events – X “Realpolitik”
Dual Monarchy
•
•
•
•
Loss of Russian ally
Defeats at hands of France and Piedmont
Struggle to put together new political reality
1860 - October Diploma – federation among
states, local diets dominated by wealthy, single
parliament
• 1861 February Patent – Bicameral parliament,
Riechsrat (Appointed and indirect election)
• When Riechsrat not in session – emperor ruled
• Magyars refused to participate
The Dual Monarchy
• Ausgleish -- Compromise of 1867 -- Dual
Monarchy in essentially two different states
• Trialism -- Czechs
• Ethnic nationalism dissent ripping apart the
Empire.
Third Republic
• Napoleon III – Authoritarian era –
• 1851-1860 and Liberal 1860-1870
• With defeat at the hands of Prussia – Second
Empire comes to an end
• In settlement with Prussia, France lost AlsaceLorraine and paid $$$
• Division between Paris and rest – Paris Commune
(March 1871)
• Battle in Paris 20,000 killed
• By 1873 – Full Republic proclaimed