Transcript Instructional Design

Instructional
Design
Last Week: Cognitivism and
Constructivism
Why
do
we
lecture
???
Why Lecture?
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Reasons
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1. To Enthuse Students
Reasons
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1. To Enthuse Students
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How? Put yourself in their shoes,
Consider, if you’ve taught the topic for years...
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Consider, if new to you to do...
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Reasons
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2. To give students the info they need
Reasons
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2. To give students the info they need
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How? Handouts can give 10 times more material, but
must mix info with other materials (Make sure handout
has lots of free space)
Reasons
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3. To cover the syllabus
Reasons
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3. To cover the syllabus
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How? In a meaningfully manner. Give the students time
to reflect and revise. So stop teaching for the last 3
weeks and get students to reflect and revise.
Reasons
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4. Give the student group a sense of
identity
Reasons
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4. Give the student group a sense of
identity
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How? Group work is vital
Reasons
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5. Because it’s cost-effective - large
groups
Reasons
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5. Because it’s cost-effective - large
groups
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How? Instead of throwing out questions to students (as
some may be intimidated) ask student to spend next 3
minutes writing down 3 most important ideas we’ve
been talking about, and spend a minute comparing
you’ve with your neighbour…look for 5 volunteers.
Rather than getting student to asks questions; at end of
class collect on slips of paper and answer at start of
next class or on-line on discussion board.
Reasons
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6. To help map curriculum
Reasons
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6. To help map curriculum
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How? Signpost the course. Show the students the
syllabus, included learning outcomes. Number the
topics instead of bullet pointing them
Reasons
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7. To see how the students are doing
Reasons
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7. To see how the students are doing
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How? Look at their faces
How? Handout your slides, with first slide having
questions about previous lecture - spend 5 minutes of
lecture getting student to answer.
Reasons
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8. To change student beliefs
Reasons
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8. To change student beliefs
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How? By sharing your experience + Expert views +
Existing Theories + Other students ideas.
Make the student’s learning active, when students
apply their ideas, it becomes their knowledge.
Reasons
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9. To help students learn
Reasons
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9. To help students learn
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How? For a few minutes ask the students to reflect on
HOW they are learning. Share with others their
approaches, their triumphs and disasters.
How? Stop class for a few minutes and discuss their
note-making techniques.
How? Ask student to write down 3 things they don’t yet
know about a topic and want to learn…amalgamate
lists and hand to lecturer
Reasons
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10. To help students figure out what the
lecturer is going to ask in the exam
Reasons
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10. To help students figure out what the
lecturer is going to ask in the exam
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How? Students need to be more strategic about
assessment, it is an intelligent response to their
situation. But you just need to help them figure out your
culture of assessment, not every little facet of it.
What can lecturers do?
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Get a notebook per course.
Include attendance sheets, handouts, slides,
etc.
After each lecture
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Note down errors in slides and handouts
Write down key points of lecture
Tricky issues
Good examples
What can lecturers do?
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Include questions after each lecture
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What did I do best?
What should I avoid?
What surprised me?
What were the good student questions?
What couldn’t the students answer?
Instructional Design
Definition
Instructional Design
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Maximise the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of
instruction and other learning experiences.
The process consists of determining the current
state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal
of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to
assist in the transition.
The outcome of this instruction may be directly
observable and scientifically measured or
completely hidden and assumed.
Instructional Design
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We can divide models of instructional design
broadly into two categories
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MARCO: Models which concern themselves with
the design and planning of an entire module or
programme
MICRO: Models which concern themselves with
the design and planning of an individual lecture or
teaching session
Instructional Design
Models we’ve seen previously
Gagné’s Nine Events of
Instruction
Gagné’s Nine Events of
Instruction
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Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to learn.
Inform learners of objectives - These objectives should form the basis for
assessment.
Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating new information with prior
knowledge can facilitate the learning process.
Present the content - This event of instruction is where the new content is
actually presented to the learner.
Provide “learning guidance” - use of examples, non-examples, case studies,
graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies.
Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting performance provides an opportunity
for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further
increases the likelihood of retention.
Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided at this stage are called
formative feedback.
Assess performance - take a final assessment.
Enhance retention and transfer to the job - Effective education will have a
"performance" focus.
Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
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Organizing Course Structure: Single organisation for complete course
Simple to complex: start with simplest ideas, in the first lesson, and then
add elaborations in subsequent lessons.
Within-lesson sequence: general to detailed, simple to complex, abstract
to concrete.
Summarizers: content reviews presented in rule-example-practice format
Synthesizers: Presentation devices that help the learner integrate content
elements into a meaningful whole and assimilate them into prior knowledge,
e.g. a concept hierarchy, a procedural flowchart or decision table, or a
cause-effect model .
Analogies: relate the content to learners' prior knowledge, use multiple
analogies, especially with a highly divergent group of learners.
Cognitive strategies: variety of cues - pictures, diagrams, mnemonics, etc.
- can trigger cognitive strategies needed for processing of material.
Learner control: Learners are encouraged to exercise control over both
content and instructional strategy. Clear labelling and separation of strategy
components facilitates effective learner control of those components.
Instructional Design
The Classic Macro Model:
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Benjamin S. Bloom
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Born Feb 21, 1913
Died Sept 13, 1999
Born in Lansford,
Pennsylvania.
Educational
psychologist
Editor of “Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives,
Handbook 1: Cognitive
Domain”
Bloom’s Taxonomy
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In the 1950s Bloom helped
developed a taxonomy of cognitive
objectives in “Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives, Handbook
1: Cognitive Domain”
Means of expressing qualitatively
different kinds of thinking
Been adapted for classroom use as
a planning tool and continues to be
one of the most universally applied
models
Provides a way to organise thinking
skills into six levels, from the most
basic to the more complex levels of
thinking
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy
(Meaning)
•Evaluation: compare and discriminate between ideas, assess value of
theories, presentations make choices based on reasoned argument,
verify value of evidence, recognize subjectivity
•Synthesis: use old ideas to create new ones, generalize from given
facts, relate knowledge from several areas, predict, draw conclusions
•Analysis: seeing patterns, organization of parts, recognition of
hidden meanings, identification of components
•Application: use information use methods, concepts, theories in new
situations, solve problems using required skills or knowledge
•Comprehension: understanding information,grasp meaning, translate
knowledge into new context
•Knowledge: observation and recall of information,knowledge of
dates, events, places knowledge of major ideas
Bloom’s Taxonomy
(Verbs)
•Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend
estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value
•Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create,
design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare
•Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast,
criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine
•Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ,
illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use
•Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express,
identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review
•Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name,
order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state
Learning Outcomes
Examples
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Example Exam Paper 1
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Example Exam Paper 2
Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised
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In the 1990s Lorin
Anderson, a former student
of Bloom, led a new
assembly which met for the
purpose of updating the
taxonomy, hoping to add
relevance for 21st century
students and teachers
Published in 2001, the
revision includes several
minor and major changes.
The revised version of the
taxonomy is intended for a
much broader audience.
Original Terms
New Terms
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Evaluation
•Creating
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Synthesis
•Evaluating
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Analysis
•Analysing
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Application
•Applying
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Comprehension
•Understanding
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Knowledge
•Remembering
Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised
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Creating: Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing
things. Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.
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Evaluating: Justifying a decision or course of action. Checking,
hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging
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Analysing: Breaking information into parts to explore
understandings and relationships. Comparing, organising,
deconstructing, interrogating, finding
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Applying: Using information in another familiar situation.
Implementing, carrying out, using, executing
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Understanding: Explaining ideas or concepts. Interpreting,
summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining
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Remembering: Recalling information. Recognising, listing,
describing, retrieving, naming, finding
Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised
Creating
Evaluating
Analysing
Green Hat, Construction Key, SCAMPER, Ridiculous
Key, Combination Key, Invention Key
Brick Wall Key, Decision Making Matrix, PMI,
Prioritising.
Yellow Hat, Black Hat, Venn Diagram, Commonality
Key, Picture Key, Y Chart, Combination Key.
Applying
Blue Hat, Brainstorming, Different uses Key, Reverse
Listing Key, Flow Chart.
Understanding
Graphic Organisers, Variations Key, Reverse Listing,
PMI, Webs (Inspiration).
Remembering
White Hat, Alphabet Key, Graphic Organisers,
Acrostic, Listing, Brainstorming, Question Key.
Instructional Design
Other Macro Models
ADDIE Model
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The ADDIE model is used by instructional designers
and training developers. It is composed of five
phases
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Analysis,
Design,
Development,
Implementation, and
Evaluation
Which represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for
building effective training and performance support
tools. This model attempts to save time and money
by catching problems while they are still easy to fix.
ADDIE Model
ADDIE Model :
A = Analysis
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In analysis stage of ID process, want to find
out:
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Who are the learners or audience
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Audience analysis
What is the goal or intended outcome
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Goal analysis
ADDIE Model :
D = Design
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Content of the course
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Steps of instruction
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Subject matter analysis
Lesson planning-writing objectives
Type of media or presentation mode
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Media selection
ADDIE Model :
D = Development
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Development of instruction
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Generate lesson plans (different from lesson
planning) and lesson materials.
Complete all media & materials for instruction,
and supporting documents.
End result is a course or workshop ready for
delivery.
ADDIE Model :
I = Implementation
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The delivery of the instruction.
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Purpose is effective & efficient delivery of
instruction.
Promote students’ understanding of material &
objectives, and ensure transfer of knowledge.
ADDIE Model :
E = Evaluation
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Two related evaluations going on
simultaneously in most ID situations.
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Formative Evaluation
Summative Evaluation
ADDIE Model
The elusive origins of the
ADDIE Model
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Remarkably it appears that the ADDIE model
wasn’t specifically developed by any single
author but rather to have evolved
informally through oral tradition.
The ADDIE Model is merely a colloquial term
used to describe a systematic approach to
instructional development.
ASSURE model
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Analyze learners’ characteristics, competencies, and learning
styles
State objectives for what your lesson should accomplish (ABCD
format—audience/behavior/condition/degree)
Select, modify, and design methods, media, and materials
Utilize methods, media and materials—implement the lesson
Require learner participation in lesson
Evaluate learner outcomes with objectives and revise as
necessary
From “Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning” by
Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda, James D. Russell, Sharon E.
Smaldino
The ABCD Format
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Audience: The audience is the group of individuals who are targeted for instruction. While
at first this seems straight forward, many times employees will ask “will I get anything out of
this training?” or “should I attend this training?” or “who is supposed to go to this training?”
Without a clear-cut audience in mind, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly who gains from the
training and who would be better served in a different class.
Behaviour: The behaviour element of the objective indicates the desired outcome of the
particular learning event. The behaviour will be stated in the following form “will be able to
detail properly” or “will be able to discuss the mechanism of action (MOA) with the doctor.”
The behaviour is what you want the person to be able to do as a result of the training. It is
important to clarify the behaviour because training programs can get off track when the
desired outcome of the training activity is not clearly defined.
Condition: The term “condition” describes circumstances under which the behaviour
should occur. An example would be “when calling on a doctor,” The condition describes a
trigger for the desired behaviour.
Degree: The term “degree” represents how well the employee must perform to be
considered acceptable. The degree of the objective is the measurable component.
Measures can be expressed as level of productivity, quantity, quality, time, internal or
external customer requirements, or other criteria gained from actual or anticipated work
practices.
From “Instructional Technology - A Systematic Approach to Education” by Frederick
G. Knirk, Kent L. Gustafson
Dick and Carey Model
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The model was originally published in 1978
by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book
entitled “The Systematic Design of
Instruction”.
It champions a systems view of instruction as
opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of
isolated parts. The model addresses
instruction as an entire system, focusing on
the interrelationship between context,
content, learning and instruction.
Dick and Carey Model
Revise
Instruction
Conduct
Instructional
Analysis
Assess Need
to Identify
Goal(s)
Write
Performance
Objectives
Analyze
Learners and
Contexts
Develop
Assessment
Instruments
Develop
Instructional
Strategy
Develop
And Select
Instructional
Materials
Design and
Conduct
Formative
Evaluation
Design and
Conduct
Summative
Evaluation
ICARE model
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Based on the Dick and Carey Model and
pioneered by San Diego State University in
1997, the model has found a place in the
higher education sector.
ICARE model
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Introduce learners to what is to be learned
Content of lesson is presented to learner
involving active participation
Apply new knowledge and skills with practical
activities
Reflect on what has been learned
Extend learning of lesson by providing
alternative resources
ICARE model
Tripp and Bichelmeyer
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Design that occurs in a rapid prototyping
environment, when prototyping is specifically
used as a method for instructional design.
The analysis of needs and content depends
in part upon the knowledge that is gained by
actually building and using a prototype
instructional system.
Tripp and Bichelmeyer
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Tripp,Steven, Bichelmeyer,Barbara, Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional
design strategy, Educational Technology Research and Development, 38, 1,
3/18/1990, Pages 31-44
Tripp and Bichelmeyer
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Diagram needs additions
Other Macro Models
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There are many other macro models of
instructional design, we won’t go into them,
but I’ve included a few pictures for your
viewing pleasure.
Hannafin & Peck Model
Knirk & Gustafson Model
Jerrold Kemp Model
Gerlach-Ely Model
Ausubel’s Assimilation Theory
Instructional Design
More in the Micro
Component Display Theory
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Component Display Theory (CDT) classifies learning along two
dimensions:
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content
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performance
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facts, concepts, procedures, and principles
remembering, using, generalities
The theory specifies that instruction is more effective to the extent that it
contains all necessary primary and secondary forms. Thus, a complete
lesson would consist of objective followed by some combination of
rules, examples, recall, practice, feedback, helps and mnemonics
appropriate to the subject matter and learning task. Indeed, the theory
suggests that for a given objective and learner, there is a unique
combination of presentation forms that results in the most effective
learning experience.
Component Display Theory
Component Display Theory
Active Learning
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an umbrella term that refers to several
models of instruction that focus the
responsibility of learning on learners.
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Think-Pair-Share
The Pause Procedure
Fact Rounding
Network Phasing
Learning Cell
Active Writing
Team Quizzes
Active Learning
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Think-Pair-Share
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learners take a short amount of time (e.g. one minute) to
ponder the previous lesson,
Then they discuss it with one or more of their peers,
finally to share it with the class as part of a formal
discussion.
It is during this formal discussion that the instructor
should clarify misconceptions. However students
need a background in the subject matter to
converse in a meaningful way. Therefore a "think
pair share" exercise is useful in situations where
learners can identify and relate what they already
know to others.
Active Learning
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The Pause Procedure
We know that even the most motivated student's
concentration declines after 10-15 minutes.
Teaching often requires students to play passive
roles and assume all students need the same
information at the same pace. By using three twominute pauses during the lecture (about every 13 to
18 minutes), the students are given the chance to
clarify, assimilate, and retain the information
presented during the prior mini-class. The pause
procedure can be used as a vehicle to carry into the
traditional class a variety of active and collaborative
learning structures.
Active Learning
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The Pause Procedure
Examples of things do to during the 'pause' include;
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Ask students to turn to their neighbour and summarize the main ideas the
instructor has just presented (e.g., List three major points in the last lecture
and one point you're confused on).
Ask students to read over their notes of the materials covered today and put
a question mark beside anything they want either clarification on or more
details on.
Ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper, pose a question (either
specific or open-ended), and give them one (or perhaps two - but not many
more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample questions include: "What are the
countries in Europe?", "What are 'Human Rights'?", "What is the different
between adverbs and adjectives?" and so on (“one minute paper”).
Ask students "What was the 'muddiest point' in today's class?" or, perhaps,
you might be more specific, asking, for example: "What (if anything) do you
find unclear about the lesson?" listing topics.
Ask students to report their reactions to some facet of the course material i.e., to provide an emotional or evaluative response to the material.
Active Learning
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Fact Rounding
The Fact rounding technique works as
follows, towards the end of a lesson the
students are asked to recall one fact from the
material covered. Another student should not
repeat a fact already mentioned and the
activity should continue until all the lesson
material has been covered.
Active Learning
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Network Phasing
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The activity of Phasing starts off with three groups in its first Phase. These
groups will each be assigned a particular section of a larger problem. All
groups are then given a specific amount of time to work on either fact finding
or a solution or both. The time frame most suitable for Phasing is two hours
but the approach taken can vary depending on the needs of the particular
problem. After a given period of time the group elect a leader to present their
findings. From this short presentation the students will learn about the
different sections of the larger problem.
Phase 2 begins with the original groups being split in two halves and those
halves coming to form two new groups. This formation ensures that all
students get exposure to all areas of the larger problem. The two new
groups will have a new solution or facts to find. Phase 2 develops in the
same way as Phase 1 and the elected leader of each group present the
findings.
Phase 3 takes the form of a group discussion bringing the findings of Phase
2 together to form the solution to the larger problem. This discussion should
be lead by the teacher to ensure the student’s findings are correct and to
give suggested improvements.
Active Learning
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Learning Cell
A learning cell is a process of learning where two students
alternate asking and answering questions on commonly read
materials. To prepare for the assignment, the students will read
the assignment and write down questions that they have about
the reading. At the next class meeting, the teacher will randomly
put the students in pairs. The process begins by designating one
student from each group to begin by asking one of their
questions to the other. Once the two students discuss the
question. The other student will ask a question and they will
alternate accordingly. During this time, the teacher is going
around the class from group to group giving feedback and
answering questions. This system is also referred to as a
“student dyad” (or pair).
Active Learning
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Active Writing
The Active Writing technique is used as follows;
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at the end of the lesson students are asked to submit
questions based on the material covered.
These questions are used as an introduction to the next
lesson.
The purpose of this activity is to ensure that the
students will have their questions answered and to
reflect on the material. This activity is different to the
other because it is spreads across two separate
lessons. This technique can also be used to gauge
students’ understanding of a subject based on the
questions they submit.
Active Learning
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Team Quizzes
The team quizzes activity divides the class into two
groups (Group A and Group B). The groups are
given an amount of time to generate questions on
the material covered. The teacher aims Group A’s
questions to Group B and visa versa. If the group
give the correct answer a point is awarded,
otherwise the other group must give the answer. The
purpose of this approach is to promote the
generation of well thought out questions and
answers.
Six Thinking Hats
Six Hats Instructional Model
BLUE:
Introduction and overview of topic
WHITE:
Facts and Figures about the Topic
YELLOW:
Positive outcomes of Topic
BLACK:
Negative outcomes of Topic
GREEN:
Interesting outcomes of Topic
RED:
Personal, emotional and people-oriented aspects of
topic
WHITE:
Review of new facts uncovered
BLUE:
Summary and finish up
Other Micro Techniques
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Learning by teaching
Problem-based learning
Project-based learning
Inquiry-based learning
Action learning
Progressive inquiry
Service-learning
Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student
achievement;
Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student
achievement;
Lecturer influence
Quiz
Student influence
Put these in order of importance on student
achievement;