Transcript The Basics of Proposal Writing An Introduction to Writing a Successful Grant Application

The Basics of Proposal
Writing
An Introduction to Writing a
Successful Grant Application
Introductory Comments: Is it
about the money? Yes and No
• Why write a grant proposal?
 Can you afford to support the
projects that interest you from
your own or your institution’s
resources?
• Ultimately successful grant
seeking must be driven by
your professional goals, the
quality of the research or
project, the institution’s
mission and the needs of
the potential grantor, not
simply the money.
Introductory Comments: Traits of
a Good Proposal Writer
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Is clever
Plans well
Prepares extensively
Takes input and criticism
in a positive manner to
improve ideas and
presentation
Introductory Comments: Be
Proactive not Reactive
• Start the proposal preparation process
early
• Don’t be either to narrow or too general in
your approach
• Learn about your potential funding
source(s)
• Develop a quality assurance process
 e.g.
have a pre-submission review team read
and comment on the proposal
Introductory Comments:
Innovation Counts
• In submitting a proposal you are marketing your
ideas, the capabilities of you and your
organization, and possibly those of your
partners, to get the proposed work done in an
effective manner.
• Grant seeking is an entrepreneurial activity and
the competitive nature of grant funding
encourages innovative ideas that will solve the
problem in the most effective manner.
Introductory Comments: You Must
Have Goals
• Identify your long term goals
 Your professional goals
 Goals of the research
• Get to know your field
 The people
 The funding sources
 Begin networking – professionally and socially
• Be prepared for rejection
• Stick to your goals – but consider flexible
solutions
Identifying Sources of
Funding: The Grants
Marketplace
The Grants Marketplace: Federal
Government Funding
• Federal and State funding accounts for more than 75% of all money
granted (note that this is money granted, if contracts are included
the percentage would increase to well over 90%).
• Types of Federal Grants
 Categorical Grants – address a specific area of programmatic concern
 Block Grants – Pass categorical grant money to the state for administration
following state rules.
 Formula Grants – funds allocated according to set criteria such as number
of individuals below the poverty level. Specific to a problem area or
geographic region and must pass through an intermediary such as a city
government.
 Cooperative Agreement or Cooperative Research and Development
Agreement (CRADA) - An award similar to a grant, but in which the
sponsor's staff may be actively involved in proposal preparation, and
anticipates having substantial involvement in research activities once the
award has been made.
The Grants Marketplace: State
Government Funding
• In terms of dollars most of the state grants come from
federal block and formula grants.
 States can develop their own priorities for distribution of these
federal funds.
 States may add restrictions in addition to those imposed in the
federal guidelines, use a peer review system, or use elected
officials or political appointees to review applications.
• States also create their own programs and review may
or may not be by state-wide criteria.
Types of Grant Opportunities
• Broad Agency Announcement (BAA) - An announcement of a
federal agency's general research interests that invites proposals
and specifies the general terms and conditions under which an
award may be made.
• Investigator-Initiated Proposal - A proposal submitted to a sponsor
that is not in response to an RFP, RFA, or a specific PA.
• Program Announcement (PA)- Describes existence of a research
opportunity. It may describe new or expanded interest in a particular
extramural program or be a reminder of a continuing interest in an
extramural program.
 Parent Announcements – A form of PA used by the NIH, span the
breadth of the NIH mission in order to ensure it has a way to capture
“unsolicited” applications that do not fall within the scope of targeted
announcements.
Types of Grant Opportunities
• Request for Applications (RFA) - Announcements that indicate the
availability of funds for a topic of specific interest to a sponsor.
Proposals submitted in response to RFAs generally result in the
award of a grant. Specific grant announcements may be published
in the Federal Register and/or specific sponsor publications.
• Request for Proposal (RFP) - Announcements that specify a topic
of research, methods to be used, product to be delivered, and
appropriate applicants sought. Proposals submitted in response to
RFPs generally result in the award of a contract. Notices of federal
RFPs are published in the Commerce Business Daily.
Contracts
• Contract - A mechanism for procurement of a
product or service with specific obligations for
both sponsor and recipient. Typically, a research
topic and the methods for conducting the
research are specified in detail by the sponsor,
although some sponsors award contracts in
response to unsolicited proposals.
The Grants Marketplace:
Private Foundations
Types of Private Foundations
• National General Purpose Foundations
 These foundations have interests in several areas
and fund projects that will have a broad impact.
• Special Purpose Foundations
 Define their area of interest specifically
• Community Foundations
 Want to make a difference in the communities in
which they are based
• Family Foundations
Patterns of Foundation Funding
• Education is the largest recipient of foundation
funds (25%) followed by human services (17%),
health (16%), and the arts (12%)
• Higher education receives more support than
any other aspect of eduction (15% compared to
6% for K-12)
Identifying Potential Foundation
Funding
• Define your project, its goals and the specific
actions you will take to achieve those goals
• The Foundation Directory is the source for
information on sources of 92% of all foundation
funding.
• The Foundation Directory may be accessed online in the Office of Research and Sponsored
Programs Administration.
The Corporate Marketplace
The Corporate Marketplace: Education &
Health & Human Services
• Corporate giving comes in two forms – directly
from the corporation and from corporate
foundations
• The guiding principle of corporate giving is selfinterest – “this-for-that” – corporations do not
usually give away money, they invest it.
 The latest IRS rule allows up to 10% of their pre-tax
gifts and grants to not-for-profits as a tax deduction
 Education and health and human services are the two
biggest recipients of corporate contributions
The Corporate Marketplace: Culture & the
Arts
• Can you demonstrate that employees of the
corporation come to performances or sites
• Do employees of the corporation volunteer at
the performances or sites
• Do you interact with local agencies involved in
the same activities
• Do you offer activities such as family and school
activities that will assist the corporation in
recruiting employees
Entering the Proposal Writing
Process
Maximize Lead Time
• Having time to write a compelling proposal
is essential
• This begins with a proactive and early
search for funding opportunities
• You must create the quality time to
produce the proposal from generation of
the idea through gap analysis to
submission of the proposal
You Do Not Want to Get This Review
“The problems with this grant are legion,
but if I go on to detail them I will have
spent more time on the review than it
appears the applicant did in his
preparation of the proposal.”
General Guidelines for a Proposal
• Nothing beats a good idea
• Be realistic – You’re probably not going to solve
the problem of world hunger with your proposed
project
• Make the presentation clear and simple
• Make the presentation easy to read
• Present yourself, or you and your collaborators,
as the one person or group who can solve the
problem of interest to the funding entity
• Prepare a realistic budget and thoroughly justify
it
Nothing Beats a Good Idea
• Articulate a worthwhile, single, focused objective
• Articulate Specific Aims that are clearly related to
one another and logically fit under the umbrella of
the overall objective
• Present gaps in our knowledge
• Plant the seed for achieving each specific aim by
presenting the questions to be asked which will
fill the gaps
Develop Your Idea
• Define the problem that you want to address
• Collect and critically analyze background
information related to the problem
• Develop, don’t force, the preliminary idea
• Assess the potential for success in solving the
problem based on your idea
• Seek constructive input/criticism from
knowledgeable colleagues
• Refine the idea to maximize its potential for
impact on your field
Assess Your Idea
• Critically asses whether or not you have the
necessary expertise, resources, personnel and
preliminary data to be competitive
• Find the agency that fits your idea
 Know what an agency can fund
 Funding your proposal should be compatible with
meeting the goals of the agency
 Contact the program officer and listen closely and
carefully
Sell Your Idea: The Successful Sell
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Make a good first impression
Be well-prepared
Be credible
Deliver a clear message
Provide supporting documentation
Include appropriate endorsements
Have something special to offer
Be persistent
Sell Your Idea – Convey Enthusiasm
• You must be enthusiastic about your idea and
maximally convey this enthusiasm to the reviewers
 A major key to success in grant-writing is to create
enthusiasm in the reviewer such that he becomes an
advocate for your proposal
 If at all possible get to know who your reviewers will be
• Articulate a worthwhile, single, focused objective
• Articulate Specific Aims that are clearly related to
one another and logically fit under the umbrella of
the overall objective
Sell Your Idea
• Present gaps in our knowledge
• Plant the seed for achieving each specific
aim by presenting the questions to be
asked which will fill the gaps
• Tell the reviewers what to expect for their
investment
Needs or Gap Analysis
• You must convincingly establish the need for the solution
to the problem you are interested in.
 Just because it is obvious to you doesn’t mean it’s
obvious to a potential grantor.
• What is the problem that requires a solution?
• What will happen if this problem is not solved?
• What is the gap between what exists now and what
ought to be or would be if the knowledge existed to solve
the problem?
• Why should grant funds be used now to solve the
problem and reduce the gap?
Does Needs Analysis Apply to the
Basic Research Grant
• Yes – You must know the literature in your field
in depth such that you can generate hypotheses
which are based on what is not now known, but
must be known to advance the field.
• You must be on the “cutting edge”.
 You do not want to have your idea labeled as “old
science”
Writing the Proposal: General
Points
Conceptual Model Of A Proposal
Idea
Supporting Concepts & Data
Details of the Plan
Appendices (Use sparingly if permitted at all)
The Four Most Important Elements of
Grant-Writing
• Read the Instructions, understand the
Instructions, Follow the Instructions
• Read the Instructions, understand the
Instructions, Follow the Instructions
• Read the Instructions,
understand the Instructions,
Follow the Instructions
The Four Most Important Elements of
Grant-Writing
• AND THEN REALLY READ THE
INSTRUCTIONS
• Read the correct instructions
• Read all of the instructions
• Read the current instructions
• Read the RFA and PA especially well as
these are supplied to the reviewers
You Must Present the Proposal So That
It Answers These Questions
• What positively singles out this grant application
from all others under consideration?
• Why is this grant special and, therefore,
deserving of support?
Make The Presentation Clear And
Simple
• Assume total ignorance on the part of the
reviewer
• Provide all of the simplest conceptual
background
• No abbreviations or acronyms without definition
• Use diagrams to illustrate concepts
• Use formatting for emphasis
• Be redundant
Make The Presentation Easy To Read
• Put yourself in the position of the reviewer
• Do not be wordy – write like Hemingway, not
Faulkner
• Tell the reviewer what he is supposed to think
and write
• Do not force the reviewer to hunt through the
application for information
Make The Presentation Easy To Read
• Use simple declarative sentences
• Avoid complicated words, unusual abbreviations
(always define an abbreviation that is not
common to the area), and tortuous syntax
• Avoid “weak” words that may introduce doubt
into the mind of the reviewer about your ability to
do the work
 Example “We will try to establish conditions for –” vs.
“The following variables will be considered in order to
establish conditions for ---”
Order of Preparation
• Write the Specific Aims and Hypotheses
first, then the Narrative, then the
Justification and Background and finally
the Title and Summary or Abstract
Present Yourself As The Greatest
Expert In The Field
• Know the literature in depth and breadth
• Do not make statements without attribution or
preliminary data
• Do not be reluctant to admit shortcomings
• Seek collaborators or mentors when your
expertise cannot be documented
Present Yourself As The Greatest
Expert In The Field
This is an important research project, which can be accomplished in
timely fashion because the personnel, methods and equipment
required for the successful completion of the research are already in
place. The PI and co-investigators are well qualified to accomplish the
goals of this application. The PI and co-investigators have worked
closely together for several years, as evidenced by peer-reviewed
papers which are relevant to the current proposal. The PI will be
responsible for the organization of the research project and for the
overall administration of the program. The PI has extensive experience
in investigation of opioid-mediated signaling pathways and innate
immunity. One Co-I has extensive experience in neuroscience and in
glial biology. Another Co-I has extensive experience in cellular biology
of neuroscience and another Co-I is experienced in researching
signaling pathways. The research team will continue to interact via
weekly lab meetings, email, phone and direct interaction.
Be Realistic
• Ask questions which are answerable
• Provide tantalizing preliminary data as
evidence that the questions are worth asking
and answerable
• Propose technical approaches which are
within the realm of your published technical
expertise OR provide preliminary data
• The volume of work proposed should be
proportional to the time of support requested
and your other obligations
Significance
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Does the proposed work address an important
problem?
If the aims of the proposal are achieved how
will the problems addressed be reduced or
how will scientific knowledge be advanced?
What will be the effect of this work on the
paradigm used in the field or what effect will
there be on concepts and methods that drive
this scientific field?
Significance: Especially for NSF
• What are the broader impacts of the proposed activity
 How does the activity advance discovery and understanding
while promoting teaching, training and learning?
 How well does the proposed activity broaden the participation of
underrepresented groups?
 To what extent will it enhance the infrastructure for research and
education, such as facilities, instrumentation, networks and
partnerships?
 Will the results be disseminated broadly to enhance scientific
and technological understanding?
 What may be the benefits of the proposed activity to society?
Approach
• Are the conceptual framework, design, methods,
and analyses adequately developed, wellintegrated, and appropriate to the aims of the
project?
• Does the applicant acknowledge potential
problem areas and consider alternative tactics?
Innovation
• Does the project employ novel concepts,
approaches, or methods?
• Are the aims original and innovative?
• Does the project challenge existing paradigms
or develop new methodologies or technologies?
Environment
• Does the environment (facilities, availability of
relevant expertise, etc.)
• Does the proposed activity or experiment(s) take
advantage of unique features of the environment
or employ useful collaborative arrangements?
• Is there evidence of institutional support?
Writing the Proposal: Some
Specific Suggestions
Background And Significance
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Provide just enough background information so
the reviewer appreciates what you are proposing
Extraneous information is distracting
Compartmentalize information with bold
headings, key words and sentences
Make use of diagrams and
cartoons to describe processes
and concepts
Use a terminal sentence pointing to your goal at
the end of each compartment
Research Design And Methods:
General Methods
• Present most often used methods first, each in
separate titled paragraphs
• Present in a depth which is inversely
proportional to your published experience with
the methods
• Cite publications in which you have used the
methods
• Refer to the preliminary data when describing
unpublished methods
Research Design And Methods:
Experimental approaches to each Specific Aim
• Each specific aim is its own section
• State specific aim
• State hypothesis associated with that specific
aim
• State question(s) associated with that
hypothesis
• Provide rationale for each question
• Describe experiments
• Expected results, interpretation, shortcomings
and pitfalls
The Specific Aims Section
• One of the two most important section of the
application (the Summary is the other)
• One of the only sections that will be read by all
of the reviewers
• Must quickly engender enthusiasm for your idea
• The flow of logic must be compelling
The Specific Aims Section:
Characteristics
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Two-to-five at the most
Brief, focused and limited in scope
Format each with an “eye-catching headline”
Conceptual, not descriptive
Each must logically flow from the preceding and
into the next
• Must test the stated hypothesis or hypotheses
• None should be absolutely dependent on the
outcome of another
The Specific Aims Section
• Brief Introduction: Known, unknown, problem
and why is it important to solve
• Long-range goal
• Objective of this application
• Specific aim(s)
• Hypothesis
• Rationale
• Why you are the best qualified (e.g. preliminary
data, unique reagent, research environment)
• Innovation, expectations and impact
The Specific Aims Section
• Long-Range Goal
• Not the goal of the current application
• Is the goal of the overall program of which the
current proposal is a part
• Be realistic: do not overstate or over-anticipate
your capabilities
 “The long range goal of our research program is to
better understand the neurochemistry of learning”
The Specific Aims Section
• Objective of this proposal
 “The objective of the research proposed in this
application is to determine the relationship between
acetylcholine and learning.”
• Must be a step toward attainment of the longterm goal
• Defines the purpose of the proposed research
• Must be phrased in such a way that the central
hypothesis clearly grows out of it
The Specific Aims Section: The
Hypothesis
• Each Specific Aim should be HYPOTHESIS
DRIVEN
May consist of more than one
hypothesis
• Hypothesis should be defended in terms of
the overall objectives previously stated
Do not be afraid of redundancy with
the Background
The Specific Aims Section: The
Hypothesis
• “Specific Aim 1 will test the effects of
scopolamine, a drug that blocks acetylcholine,
on the ability of rats to learn the radial arm
maze.”
• Write a hypothesis, not a predetermined
conclusion
 “The hypothesis that will be tested in accomplishing
Specific Aim 1 is that blockade of acetylcholine will
lead to deficits in learning.”
 “The hypothesis that will be tested is to show that
scopolamine, a cholinergic antagonist drug, will impair
learning.”
The Specific Aims Section:
Environment
• Only equipment that contributes to evaluation of
merit – e.g. a confocal microscope and image
analysis system, not a standard research
microscope
• Key collaborative arrangements and other
unique features that enhance probability of
success
• Extraordinary institutional commitment, e.g.
significant release time from teaching, support of
a research technician
• Intellectual environment conducive to successful
completion of your research
The Resources Section
• Is a separate section and is more general than
what is included under environment in specific
aims
• Must be well written
• List key equipment including larger pieces of
standard equipment, but do not include
equipment requested in your budget
• Include institutional core facilities
• Include reference to colleagues such as
biostatisticians who may be consulted but are
not listed as key personnel
The Specific Aims Section:
Expectations and Impact
• Key section for developing advocacy
• Statement regarding innovation must grow out of the
specific aims
• Expectations must be realistic
• Each statement of expectation must be followed by a
statement as to why that outcome is important
 e.g. “This research is innovative and important because to date
no studies have been done that have elucidated the pathway
whereby glia cells influence opioid dependence.”
• Collective impact – Summary of how will all of the
outcomes advance the field
The Narrative
• What do you propose to do
• How you propose to do it
• What results you expect and what they will
mean in terms of the overall project
• What might go wrong
• What alternative approaches will be used
to cope with potential problems
The Narrative
• Organize the narrative according to the
Specific Aims, with one section for each
• Devote approximately the same number of
pages to each aim
• Use an organized presentation format
• Use appendices sparingly if at all
• Never exceed the page limits specified in
the instructions
The Narrative
• Each subsection of the narrative should be
laid out the same
• Introduction
• Experimental design
Experiment #1
Experiment #2
• Expected Results
• Anticipate problems and their solutions
(alternative strategies)
The Narrative: Introduction
• Begin each subsection with a short
paragraph that states its objective, the
working hypothesis to be tested, the
overall strategy that will be used, the
rationale for the studies that will be
proposed, and any specific outcomes that
are expected
Specific Aim 1. Elucidate the mechanism by which TLR2-mediated glial
activation contributes to the development of opioid dependence and
withdrawal
The working hypothesis for this aim is that TLR2-mediated glial activation plays a
critical role in opioid dependence and withdrawal. The objective of this aim is to
decipher the mechanisms by which TLR2 effects glial activation to produce opioid
dependence and withdrawal thereby obtaining insights into the mechanisms
causing opioid-induced glial activation. The rationale for this aim is based on the
following evidence. We know that TLR2 knockout mice develop attenuated
morphine dependence (Fig. 5). We also know that chronic morphine administration
significantly increases the expression of TLR2 in microglia (33). Importantly, we
have shown that TLR2 is required for the glial cell activation following opioid
dependence (Fig. 7). In addition, TLR2 deficiency in mice significantly reduces the
levels of proinflammatory cytokines following chronic morphine administration (Fig.
8). Moreover, recent evidence reveals that TLR2 can function as a cell death
receptor (12). However, we do not know the mechanism by which TLR2-mediated
glial cell activation contributes to the development of opioid dependence and
withdrawal. The experiments in this aim will focus on this issue. The strategy of this
aim is to block TLR2 in mice in order to determine the contribution of TLR2mediated glial activation in producing opioid dependence and withdrawal.
The Narrative: Experimental Design
• Use separate paragraphs/sections to
develop each planned set of studies
• Avoid emphasis on routine methods
• Methods detract from the conceptual
appeal of the application
• Where appropriate refer to previous work
by you and/or your colleagues
• Express confidence in your ability to
accomplish your objectives
The Narrative: Expected Results
• This is a key subsection
• This is where you tell the reviewers what
can be expected from the investment
made in this project
• Succinctly and realistically summarize
what the most important results should be
• Avoid overstatement
The Narrative: Anticipated Problems and
Alternative Strategies
• If potential problems exist, acknowledge
them
• Offer alternative strategies
• Do not overemphasize the alternative
strategies
Justification
• Significance
• Make it easy for the reviewers to identify the importance
of the impact the research will have
• Include direct sentence regarding the significance
• Significance projected must by pertinent to the interests
of the reviewers and the mission of the agency
• Background
• The purpose is not to be comprehensive – this is not the
introduction to your dissertation – be selective
• The purpose is to present a solid foundation for your
proposal – avoid undue reliance on review papers
Background
• Describe what is known
• Describe what is not known (the gaps)
• Describe what needs to be done (what will
fill the gaps)
• Emphasize how your results will meet the
need, i.e., solve the problem that you have
highlighted
Background
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Write this section as one of the last
Cite review articles sparingly
Ensure that citations are fully up-to-date
Cite your reviewers where appropriate, but
do not contrive a context to cite them
• Be appropriately critical of earlier work in
the field (not in a mean-spirited way)
• Logically build toward what you expect
your contribution to be
Preliminary Studies
• You really should have preliminary data so the
reviewers do not think you are relying entirely on
the work of others
• Published studies
 Describe first, include limited technical data
 Include one or two figures or ables for each
 Provide reprints as an appendix if allowed
• Unpublished studies
 Describe in more complete technical detail
 Acknowledge level of reliability
The Title
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Reviewers’ first impression
Should be informative
Must engender enthusiasm
Can influence assignment for review
Can be misunderstood and used out of
context – this is why you write it after the
body of the proposal is finished
The Title
• Know whether or not there are restrictions on
length
• If so, know whether the restriction pertains to
characters or characters and spaces
• List accepted abbreviations
• List words that convey what you want to do and
why it is important
• Arrange words/abbreviations into a compelling,
informative title that fits the space
The Title
• Train Nurse Mentors in Grant-Writing Skills
vs.
• Teach and Sustain Grant-Writing Skills in
Nurse Researchers
The Summary
• The other of the two most important sections
(along with the Specific Aims)
• Will be read by all reviewers
• Must convey all of the application’s essential
information
• Must be written in plain English because it will
be used to summarize the agency’s investment
• It must convey infectious enthusiasm for the
project
The Summary
• The most difficult section of the proposal
to write
• Should be written last
• Extract all essential information from the
proposal verbatim and then edit it to fit the
space allowed
Intellectual Merit. Scanning electron microscopy is an important investigative tool in the life and physical sciences.
There are three major research programs and at least four additional research programs at East Tennessee State
University (ETSU) that currently require high resolution SEM and/or EDS. Further, ETSU is beginning a Department of
Geosciences in 2009 which will increase demand on the SEM. The expanding use of the existing scanning electron
microscopes in research and teaching by several units and the age of the existing SEMs demands improved infrastructure
in this area in order to provide adequate support for research and teaching in several departments at ETSU.
The purpose of this grant is to specifically upgrade ETSU’s SEM capabilities. The existing Zeiss DSM
940 and the Hitachi S-340, because of their age (greater than 25 years), condition, and the availability of parts have
become increasingly difficult to maintain, and the resolution and quality of the images these instruments produce is not
adequate for high quality research. Further, there is a critical need to add analytical capabilities to our SEM (i.e., EDS). In
an evaluation of our EM facility users have unanimously viewed the acquisition of a high resolution SEM as the
most immediate and critical research need.
Broader Impacts. The number faculty members using SEM has increased at ETSU during the past five years and
there has been a concomitant increase in undergraduate and graduate student research projects necessitating more
frequent offering of formal instruction in electron microscopy to prepare students to conduct independent undergraduate
and graduate research projects. Investigators are more frequently using electron microscopic methods and analytical
techniques in undergraduate and graduate classes (e.g. Mineralogy, Sedimentation - Stratigraphy, Structural Geology,
Invertebrate Paleontology and Vertebrate Paleontology). SEM is used in these courses for, among other things,
identification of mineral species, determination of the shape and form of minerals, and sedimentary grain analysis but
because of age of the current instruments students are not being trained in the use of modern equipment and analytical
techniques which will be corrected with the SEM requested in this proposal.
Without question an improved SEM facility will strengthen existing research programs, attract new research
programs, and allow training of students at all levels, including K-12, in the use of SEM. The new SEM will significantly
facilitate research programs at ETSU in biological sciences, paleontology, geology, anatomy and cell biology, microbiology
and physiology. Further, it will also serve faculty and students at King College and Virginia Intermount College,
liberal arts colleges located about 25 miles from ETSU. It will increase research capability at King in the area of
phycology particularly in the study of algal diversity and taxonomy. Additionally students taking courses in Microbiology,
Histology, and Photosynthetic Life at King will use the requested SEM.
The ETSU and General Shale Brick Natural History Museum provides an ideal venue to introduce students in
grades K-12 to “hands on” education in research methods in the life and physical sciences. The purchase of the requested
equipment will significantly contribute to the development and implementation of primary and secondary school programs
through the Museum of Natural history, as well as exposing the adult general public to the use of this technology in
research.
Submit a Realistic Budget
• Request only what
you need and you can
defend but do not
request less than you
need
• Justify every item in
the budget thoroughly
• Present evidence that
your institution
supports your
research or project