Transcript Psychology Rachel Lyn Rumson 207-332- 7224

Psychology
Rachel Lyn Rumson
207-332- 7224
[email protected]
[email protected]
Agenda
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Business Items
Psychology of Studying
Lecturette
Activity
-BreakLecturette
Assignment review
Business Items
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Wiki
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Textbook companion site
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http://psychT3.pbworks.com/
http://www.wadsworth.com
Office hours – required
No late work
Term Timeline
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Four quizzes
Midterm - Jan. 5
Term paper (Final Project) – Feb. 3
Final Exam – Feb. 9
Psychology of Studying
Self Reflection
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Where do you do most of your studying?
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Where do you do you best work?
What are your goals for this term?
(Learning, academic growth, study habits, survival)
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How will you know when you are on target?
Or off?
Are you a
Procrastinator or a
Perfectionist?
Psychology of Studying
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SQR4 and LISAN methods (p.3)
What in common?
What is different?
Turn to your Neighbor
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names
family
where you live
The program you’re in
What works?
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Time management
Buddy system
Meetings with me
Community
SQR4 and LISAN methods
Turn to your Neighbor
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Find someone you do not know
Share your
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Names
Family status
Were you live
The program you’re in
Outline for today
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Psychology - Spotlight on behavior
History of Psychology
Contemporary Perspectives
What Psychologists Do
How they Think
Research Methods
Critical Thinking
Pseudo-psychologies
Introducing Psychology and
Research Methods
Psychology
Spotlight on Behavior
What Is Psychology?
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Psychology
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Psyche: Mind
Logos: Knowledge or study
Definition: The scientific study of
behavior and mental processes
Behavior Types
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Directly observable actions and
responses
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Overt; i.e., can be directly observed
(crying)
Covert; i.e., cannot be directly
observed (remembering); private,
internal
Empirical Evidence
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Information gathered from direct
observation
Psychological Research
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Scientific Observation: A systematic
empirical investigation that is structured to
answer questions about the world
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Research Method: Systematic approach
to answering scientific questions
What Might a Psychologist
Research?
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Development: Course of human growth and
development from conception to death
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Learning: How and why it occurs in humans
and animals
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Personality: Traits, motivations, and
individual differences
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Sensation and Perception: How we come
to know the world through our five senses
What Might a Psychologist
Research? Continued
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Comparative Psychologists: Study and
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Biopsychologists: How behavior relates to
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Cognitive: How reasoning, problem solving,
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Gender Psychologists: Study differences
compare behavior of different species,
especially animals
biological processes, especially nervous
system activities
and other mental processes relate to human
behavior
between females and males
What Might a Psychologist
Research? Continued
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Social: Human social behavior
Cultural: How culture affects human
behavior
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Evolutionary: How our behavior is
guided by patterns that evolved during
human history
Goals of Psychology?
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Description of Behaviors: Naming and
classifying various observable, measurable
behaviors
Understanding: The causes of behavior(s)
Prediction: Forecasting behavior accurately
Control: Altering conditions that influence
behaviors
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Positive Use: To control unwanted behaviors, (e.g.,
smoking, tantrums, etc.)
Negative Use: To control peoples’ behaviors without
their knowledge
A Brief History of Psychology
Family Album
Beginnings
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Wilhelm Wundt: “Father” of
Psychology
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1879: Set up first lab to study conscious
experience
Stimulus: Any physical energy that affects
the person and provokes a response
Introspection: Looking inward (i.e.,
examining and reporting your thoughts,
feelings, etc.)
Wundt’s ideas brought to the U.S. by
Tichener and renamed Structuralism
Introspection Activity
6 Volunteers??
H.O. 1.2
Small Group Debrief
Groups of 3
5 min
H.O. 1.2
William James and Functionalism
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Functionalism: How the mind
functions to help us adapt to our
environment
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Functionalists admired Darwin and his
theory of Natural Selection:
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Animals keep physical features through
evolution that help them adapt to
environments
Behaviorism
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Watson and Skinner
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Psychology must study observable
behavior objectively
Watson studied Little Albert with
Rosalie Raynor; Skinner studied
animals almost exclusively
Gestalt
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“The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.”
Key names: Wertheimer, Perls
Wertheimer: Mistake to analyze
psychological events into pieces;
many experiences cannot be
broken into smaller units
Psychoanalytic Psychology: Freud
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Our behavior is largely influenced by
our unconscious wishes, thoughts, and
desires, especially sex and aggression
All thoughts and actions are
determined; nothing is an accident
Freud performed dream analysis and
was an interactionist (combination of
our biology and environment make us
who we are)
Recent research has hypothesized that
our unconscious mind is partially
responsible for our behaviors
Repression
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Unconscious thoughts held out of
awareness because they are
threatening
Humanism
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Rogers
Goal of psychology is to study unique
aspects of the person; focuses on
subjective human experience.
 Each person has innate goodness and is
able to make free choices (contrast with
Skinner and Freud).
 Maslow: Self-actualization: Develop one’s full
potential and become the best person you can
be
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Who are these ladies?
Psychology Today
Three Contemporary Perspectives
Psychology Today
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Biological
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Psychological
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Sociocultural
Psychology Today
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Biopsychology: Our behavior can be
explained through physiological processes
 Uses brain scans to gather data (CT, MRI,
PET)
 Looks at neurotransmitters
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Positive Psychology: Study of human
strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior
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http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/Defa
ult.aspx
Sociocultural Perspective
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Many thoughts and behaviors are influenced
by our culture
Psychologists need to be aware of the
impact cultural diversity may have on our
behaviors
What is acceptable in one culture might be
unacceptable in another
Sociocultural Perspective
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Cultural Relativity: Behavior must
be judged relative to the values of
the culture in which it occurs
Social Norms: Rules that define
acceptable and expected behavior for
members of various groups
Psychologists
What are they Doing?
Psychologists
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Usually have masters or doctorate.
Trained in methods, knowledge, and
theories of psychology
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Clinical Psychologists: Treat psychological
problems or do research on therapies and
mental illnesses
Counseling Psychologists: Treat milder
problems, such as poor adjustment at
work or at school
Fig. 1-3c, p. 28
Psychiatrists
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MD; usually use medications to
treat problems; generally do not
have extensive training in providing
“talk” therapy
Many Flavors of Psychologists
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Psychoanalysts: Receive additional
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Counselors: Advisers who help solve
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Psychiatric Social Workers: Many have
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Freudian psychoanalytic training post-Ph.D.
or post-M.D. at an institute
problems with marriage, career, school, or
work
masters degrees and perform psychotherapy
 Use social science principles
 Presently a very popular profession
Not all psychologists perform
therapy!
Table 1-3a, p. 27
Table 1-3b, p. 27
Scientific Research
How to Think Like a Psychologist
The Scientific Method
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Six Basic Elements
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Observing
Defining a problem
Proposing a hypothesis (an educated
guess that can be tested)
Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis
Publishing results
Building a theory
Hypothesis
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Predictable outcome of an
experiment or an educated guess
about the relationship between
variables
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Testable
Operational Definition: States exact
procedures used to represent a concept.
Allows abstract ideas to be tested in realworld terms
Operational Definitions
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Are used to link concepts with
concrete observations.
Operational definitions vary in how
well they represent concepts.
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For this reason, many different
experiments may be necessary to draw
clear conclusions about hypothesized
relationships in psychology.
Who was Clever Hans?
Case study
Research Methods
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Specific hypotheses can be tested in
a variety of ways, including:
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naturalistic observation,
correlational studies,
controlled experiments,
clinical studies, and
the survey method.
Publishing
(That’s right APA style)
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Psychologists revise their theories to
reflect the evidence they gather.
New or revised theories then lead to
new
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observations,
problems, and
hypotheses.
Just like your
Final Projects!!
Research Methods
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Specific hypotheses can be tested in
a variety of ways, including:
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naturalistic observation,
correlational studies,
controlled experiments,
clinical studies, and
the survey method.
Naturalistic Observation
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Observing a person or an animal in
the environment in which the
person or animal lives
Limitations
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Observer Effect: Changes in a
subject’s behavior caused by an
awareness of being observed
Observer Bias: Occurs when
observers see what they expect to see
or record only selected details
Anthropomorphic Error: Attributing
human thoughts, feelings, or motives
to animals, especially as a way of
explaining their behavior (e.g., “Anya
my cat is acting like that because
she’s feeling depressed today.”)
Correlations
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Existence of a consistent,
systematic relationship between two
events, measures, or variables
Coefficient of Correlation
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Statistical index ranging from 1.00 to +1.00 that indicates
direction and degree of correlation
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Closer the statistic is to –1.00 or to
+1.00, the stronger the relationship
Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no
relationship between the variables
Positive Correlation
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Increases in one measure are
matched by increases in the other
measure
Negative Correlation
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Increases in one measure are
matched by decreases in the other
measure
Correlation and Causation
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Correlation does not demonstrate
causation: Just because two
variables are related does NOT
mean that one variable causes the
other to occur
What does the correlation coefficient tell us?
What does the correlation coefficient
tell us?
how strongly two measures are related
The Psychology Experiment
Where Cause meets Effect
H.O. 1.6
Experiments
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A formal trial to confirm/disconfirm
a hypothesis and to identify cause
and effect relationships
Performing an Experiment
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Directly vary a condition you might
think affects behavior
Create two or more groups of
subjects, alike in all ways except the
condition you are varying
Record whether varying the condition
has any effect on behavior
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FIGURE 1.1 Results of an empirical study. The graph shows that aggravated
assaults in Los Angeles become more likely as air temperature increases. This
suggests that physical discomfort is associated with interpersonal hostility (Data
from Simister & Cooper, 2005.)
Variables
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Any condition that can change and
that might affect the outcome of an
experiment
Independent Variable
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Condition(s) altered by the
experimenter; experimenter sets
their size, amount, or value. These
are suspected causes for behavioral
differences
Dependent Variable
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Measures the results of the
experiment; Condition is affected
by independent variable
Extraneous Variables
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Conditions that a researcher wants
to prevent from affecting the
outcomes of the experiment (e.g.,
number of hours slept before the
experiment)
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Figure 1.9 Experimental control is achieved by balancing extraneous variables for the
experimental group and the control group. For example, the average age (A), education (B),
and intelligence (C) of group members could be made the same for both groups. Then we could
apply the independent variable to the experimental group. If their behavior (the dependent
variable) changes (in comparison with the control group), the change must be caused by the
independent variable.
Groups
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Experimental Group: The group of
subjects that gets the independent variable
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Control Group: The group of subjects that
does NOT get the independent variable
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Random Assignment: Subject has an
equal chance of being in either the
experimental or control group
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FIGURE 1.8 Elements of a simple psychological experiment to assess
the effects of music during study on test scores.
Placebo
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A fake pill (sugar) or injection
(saline)
Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior that
result from expectations that a drug or
other treatment will have some effect; the
belief that one has taken an active drug
Experiment Types
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Single Blind: Only the subjects have no idea
whether they are in the experimental or
control group
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Double Blind: The subjects AND the
experimenters have no idea whether the
subjects are in the control or experimental
group
 Best type of experiment if properly set up
Experimenter Effects
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Changes in subjects’ behavior caused
by the unintended influence of the
experimenter’s actions
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that
leads people to act in ways to make the
prediction come true
The Clinical Method
Data by the Case
The Clinical Method
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Case Study: In-depth focus of all aspects
of a single subject
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Natural Clinical Tests: Natural events,
such as accidents, that provide
psychological data
Some of the earliest information on the effects of damage to frontal areas of
the brain came from a case study of the accidental injury of Phineas Gage.
The Survey Method
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Using public polling techniques to
answer psychological questions
Representative Sample: Small group that
accurately reflects a larger population
 Population: Entire group of animals or
people belonging to a particular category
(e.g., all married women)
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Courtesy Bias: Problem in research; a
tendency to give “polite” or socially desirable
answers
Critical Thinking
healthy skepticism
Critical Thinking
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Ability to analyze, evaluate,
compare, critique, and synthesize
information
Critical Thinking Principles
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Few truths transcend the need for
empirical testing
Judging the quality of evidence is
crucial
Authority or claimed expertise does
not automatically make an idea true
Critical thinking requires an open mind
How to Critically Evaluate New
Information
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Ask the following:
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What claims are being made?
What test (if any) of these claims has
been made?
Who did the test; how good is the
evidence?
How to Critically Evaluate New
Information Continued
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Ask the following:
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What was the nature and quality of the
tests? Are they credible and can they be
repeated?
How reliable and trustworthy were the
investigators?
How much credibility can the claim be
given?
Pseudo-Psychologies
Palms, Planets and Personality
Pseudo-Psychologies
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Pseudo means “false.” Any unfounded
“system” that resembles psychology and is
NOT based on scientific testing
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Phrenology: Personality traits revealed by
shape of skull and bumps on your head
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Palmistry: Lines on your hands (palms)
predict future and reveal personality
Pseudo-Psychologies Continued
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Graphology: Personality traits are
“revealed” by your handwriting
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Astrology: The positions of the stars and
planets at the time of your birth determine
your personality and affect your behavior
 Extremely popular today (“What’s your
sign?”)
Uncritical Acceptance:
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Tendency to believe positive or
flattering descriptions of yourself
Fallacy of Positive Instances
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When we remember or notice things
that confirm our expectations and
forget the rest
Barnum Effect
“Always have a little something for
everyone.”
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Tendency to consider a personal
description accurate if it is stated in
very general terms
Psychology in the Media:
Separating Fact from Fiction
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Be skeptical
Consider the source of information
Ask yourself, “Was there a control
group?”
Look for errors in distinguishing
between correlation and causation
(are claims based on correlational
results yet passed off as causations?)
Separating Fact from Fiction Continued
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Be sure to distinguish between
observation and inference (e.g.,
Robert is crying, but do we know why
he is crying?)
Beware of oversimplifications,
especially those motivated by
monetary reasons
“For example” is no proof, i.e., one
example is not proof
Homework
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Get acquainted with the wiki
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Sign up (use your best email account)
Look at textbook companion site
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Open extra credit for work done
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Just email it to me from the site!
“What is psychology?” due Monday