Chapter Eight

The Play Years: Biosocial Development 1

Body and Brain

• – – Young children’s body and brain develop according to powerful epigenetic forces Biologically driven Socially guided 2

Body Shape and Growth Rates

  Lower body lengthens  child becomes slimmer Steady increase in height and weight   3 inches in height per year 4 1/2 pounds in weight per year 3

   

Genes and Ethnic and Cultural Differences

Genetic background prepares child to be experience-expectant Cultural patterns and differences guide development Most influential factors  genes, health, nutrition Other influencing factors  sex, birth order, geography 4

Eating Habits

 Food should be nutritious   isn’t always—often far from “ideal” enough calories—not enough vitamins and minerals—major nutritional problems are  iron-deficiency anemia    too much sugar too much fat not enough fruits and vegetables 5

Brain Development

 Underlies rapidly expanding cognitive abilities    by age 2, 75% of brain weight achieved by age 5, 90% of brain weight achieved pruning of dendrites has occurred 6

Speed of Thought

 Myelination—process by which axons become insulated with a coating of myelin, a fatty substance that speeds transmission of nerve impulses    thoughts follow each other fast enough for children to perform one task after another fast processing essential for fast and complex communication experience affects rate of myelination 7

Connecting the Brain’s Hemispheres

 Corpus callosum—nerve fibers that connect the two halves of the brain 8

Connecting the Brain’s Hemispheres, cont.

9

Connecting the Brain’s Hemispheres, cont.

  Left Side, Right Side  lateralization—specialization of the two sides of the brain  left brain  logical analysis, language, speech  right brain  visual and artistic skills Coping with Brain Damage 10

Planning and Analyzing

 Prefrontal cortex (or frontal lobe) is the final part of the human brain to reach maturity   the area in the very front of the brain that is least developed in nonhumans mid-adolescence  maturation occurs gradually and incomplete until advances at about age 3 or 4 make possible impulse control and formal education 11

Planning and Analyzing, cont.

 Perseveration—the tendency to persevere, to stick to a thought or action long after it is time to move on  occurs normally in young children—another aspect of immature self- control 12

Educational Implications of Brain Development

 By age 6, children are ready for formal instruction  before, brain not sufficiently developed in ways it needs to be, but now child can  sit still for more than an hour       scan a page of print balance sides of body draw and write with one hand listen and think before talking remember important facts control emotions 13

Educational Implications of Brain Development, cont.

 The brain provides the foundation for education  any impediments to normal growth of the brain can put academic achievement on shaky ground 14

Motor Skills and Avoidable Injuries

  Brain development allows for greater coordination and impulse control Physical maturation can make a child more vulnerable to injury 15

Gross Motor Skills

  Large body movements improve  running, jumping, climbing, throwing Gross motor skills are practiced and mastered 16

Gross Motor Skills, cont.

  Motor skills develop as rapidly as brain maturation, motivation, guided practice, and innate ability allow Children learn basic motor skills by teaching themselves and learning from other children 17

Fine Motor Skills

 Small body movements are harder to master   pouring, cutting, holding crayon, tying lacking the muscular control, patience, and judgment needed  fingers short and fat  confusion over which is dominant hand 18

Artistic Expression

 Children’s artistic endeavors are also their play    drawings often connected to perception and cognition  gradual maturation of brain and body is apparent artwork helps develop fine motor skills in artwork, many children eagerly practice perseveration 19

Serious Injuries

  Accidents are the most common cause of childhood death   poison, fire, falls, choking, and drowning unintended injuries cause millions of premature deaths per year until the age of 40; then disease becomes greatest cause of mortality Injury control/harm reduction—the idea that accidents are not random, but can be made less harmful with proper control 20

Three Levels of Prevention

   Primary prevention—actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted event or circumstance Secondary prevention—actions that avert harm in the immediate situation Tertiary prevention—actions taken after an adverse event to reduce the harm or prevent disability 21

Three Levels of Prevention, cont.

 An Example: Pedestrian Deaths     Primary prevention: Better sidewalks, slower speeds, wider roads, longer traffic signals, etc.

Secondary prevention: Improving car brakes, having school-crossing guards, having children walk with adults, etc.

Tertiary prevention: Protective helmets, laws against hit-and-run driving, emergency room procedures, etc.

Results show that these measures help to reduce unnecessary deaths 22

Parents, Education, and Protection

 SES is a powerful predictor of many accidents   Prevention and protection crucial Parents need to institute safety measures in advance  Parents’ job is protection 23

Child Maltreatment

• Sensational cases attract attention but don’t represent the typical case still, we need to learn lessons about abuse in order to understand its causes and consequences 24

Changing Definitions of Maltreatment

 Abuse and neglect    child maltreatment—intentional harm or avoidable endangerment to child child abuse—deliberate action that is harmful to child’s well-being child neglect—failure to meet child’s basic needs 25

Changing Definitions of Maltreatment, cont.

  Types of abuse: physical, sexual, emotional, and educational Neglect twice as common as abuse   one sign is failure to thrive another is hypervigilance  can be a symptom of post-traumatic stress

disorder

26

Changing Definitions of Maltreatment, cont.

  Reported maltreatment—cases about which authorities have been informed 3 million per year Substantiated maltreatment—cases that have been investigated and verified 1 million per year 27

Reported Cases of Child Maltreatment, United States, 1976–2001 28

Rates of Substantiated Child Maltreatment, United States, 1990–2001 29

Consequences of Maltreatment

 If not spotted early, then reported and stopped, maltreatment can affect every aspect of a child’s development 30

Brain Damage and Consequences for Learning

 Types of possible brain damage  

shaken baby syndrome

 condition caused by maltreatment involving shaking a crying baby, with severe brain damage as result brain damage in despondent or terrorized child  memory may be impaired; logical thinking may be delayed 31

• • Brain Damage and Consequences for Learning, cont.

Another brain disorder may appear in neglected child with clinically depressed mother unable to provide emotional support and guidance right prefrontal cortex develops more than left; consequently, negative emotions dominate, with greater likelihood of depression occurring Inadequate essential nourishment also impedes normal brain development 32

Impaired Social Skills

 Maltreated children’s social skills   less friendly, more isolated and aggressive the earlier abuse begins, the worse the relationship with peers 33

Three Levels of Prevention, Again

 Primary prevention—prevents maltreatment before problem starts  need for family support, e.g.,  stable neighborhoods   basic values SES 34

Three Levels of Prevention, Again, cont.

 Secondary prevention—responds to first symptoms or signs of risk spots and treats early problems  identifies high-risk children potential disadvantages  wrongfully stigmatizes family as inadequate   undermines helpful cultural or family patterns creates sense of helplessness in families 35

Three Levels of Prevention, Again, cont.

 Tertiary prevention—halting harm after it occurs, then treating victim    removal from family adoption Foster care—legally sanctioned, publicly supported plan that transfers care of maltreated child from parents to others 36

Chapter Nine

The Play Years: Cognitive Development 37

How Young Children Think: Piaget and Vygotsky

 Piaget—Swiss developmentalist  believed young children were limited by their egocentric perspective  egocentrism—Piaget’s term for type of centration in which child sees world solely from his/her personal perspective  Vygotsky—Russian developmentalist  recognized how child’s social/cultural context helps shape his/her cognitive development 38

Piaget: Preoperational Thought

 Preoperational thought—Piaget’s term for cognitive development between 2 and 6 years  characterized by centration, focus on appearance, static reasoning, and irreversibility 39

Obstacles to Logical Operations

  Centration—tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation

Egocentrism or ego-centration—

contemplation of the world exclusively from child’s personal perspective  empathy is an exception 40

Obstacles to Logical Operations, cont.

   Focus on appearance—ignores all attributes except appearance Static reasoning—assumes that the world is unchanging Irreversibility—fails to recognize that reversing a process can sometimes restore whatever existed before transformation 41

Conservation and Logic

  Thinking is intuitive rather than logical Conservation—principle that amount of substance is unaffected by changes in appearance   applied to liquids, numbers, matter, length understanding develops after age 7, and then slowly and unevenly 42

Conservation and Logic, cont.

43

Vygotsky: Children as Apprentices

 One Theory  theory-theory—Gopnik’s term for the idea that children attempt to construct a theory to explain everything they see and hear 44

Vygotsky: Children as Apprentices, cont.

 Children do not strive alone; their efforts are embedded in social context  parents guide young children’s cognitive growth in many ways  present new challenges for learning   offer assistance and instruction encourage interest and motivation 45

Vygotsky: Children as Apprentices, cont.

  Apprentice in thinking—child whose intellectual growth is stimulated and directed by older and more skilled members of society Guided participation—process by which young children, with the help of mentors, learn to think by having social experiences and by exploring their universe 46

 

How to Solve a Puzzle

Guidance and motivation   structure task to make solution more attainable provide motivation Guided participation    partners (tutor and child) interact tutor sensitive and responsive to needs of child eventually, because of such mutuality, child able to succeed independently 47

Scaffolding

 Scaffolding—sensitive structuring of child’s participation in learning encounters  Zone of proximal development (ZPD)— skills too difficult for child to perform alone but that can be performed with guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children    lower limit of ZPD can be reached independently upper limit of ZPD can be reached with assistance ZPD is a measure of learning potential 48

Scaffolding, cont.

• • – Private speech—internal dialogue when people talk to themselves through which new ideas are developed and reinforced verbal interaction is a cognitive tool Social mediation—use of speech to bridge gap between child’s current understanding and what is almost understood 49

50

Theory of Mind

 We each have our own personal understanding of human mental processes, and child develops this too  complex interaction of human mental processes  emotions    thoughts perceptions actions 51

Emergence by Age 4

  Social referencing Sudden understanding that mental phenomena may not reflect reality  people can be deliberately deceived or fooled 52

Contextual Influences on Theory of Mind

    Brain maturation (prefrontal cortex) General language ability An older sibling Culture that anticipates the future 53

54

Language

  Emergent literacy—skills needed to learn to read Is early childhood a sensitive or a critical period for language development?

 ages 2 to 6 do seem to be a sensitive period—a time when a certain type of development (in this case, emergent literacy) occurs most rapidly 55

Vocabulary

 2 to 6 olds learn average of 10 words per day  Fast mapping—speedy and not precise way a child assimilates new words by mentally “charting” them into interconnected categories   logical extension, or application of newly learned word to other unnamed objects in same category, closely related to fast mapping fast mapping aided by the way adults label new things for children 56

Vocabulary, cont.  Fast mapping, cont.

   children use basic assumptions about syntax and reference to fast map children cannot comprehend every word they hear difficulties may occur  with words expressing comparisons  with words expressing relationships of time and place 57

 

Grammar

The grammar of a language includes the structures, techniques, and rules used to communicate meaning Young children learn grammar so well they tend to apply its rules when they should not, a tendency called

overregularization

 examples: plural nouns (“foots”), past tense (“breaked the glass”) 58

Learning Two Languages

  Two points of view   bilingualism is an asset, even a necessity, child should become proficient in own 1st language How easy is it to be bilingual?

  many 6-year-olds have difficulty pronouncing certain sounds but auditory sensitivity helps young children master pronunciation over time, a much harder task if language learned after puberty 59

Learning Two Languages, cont.

 Best solution: children become “balanced bilinguals,” fluent in 2 languages   research confirms children can become equally fluent in 2 languages easiest way for child to become bilingual is if parents speak 2 languages   ideally, each parent represents 1 language and helps child with mastery sending child to preschool where 2nd language taught also effective 60

Early-Childhood Education

 Controversy over whether, when, and where 61

Many Types of Programs

 Distinct educational curricula have been developed  Maria Montessori (100 years ago) developed structured, individualized projects for poor children 62

Child-Centered and Readiness Programs

 Many newer programs are “child centered” or “developmental”  use a Piaget-inspired model that allows children to discover at their own pace  Alternative programs stress academic readiness  some readiness programs explicitly teach basic school skills 63

Reggio-Emilia

 Reggio-Emilia—a new form of early childhood education pioneered in the Italian city of that name   children encouraged to master skills not normally seen until age 7 artistic expression, exploration of the environment, and collaboration between parents and teachers encouraged 64

Reggio Emilia, cont.

   Early childhood is the prime learning period for every child and some learn even more The above has led to conclusion: nations should provide quality early education Head Start  has provided half-day education for millions of 3 to 5 year olds, boosting abilities and skills, at least temporarily and probably for longer 65

66

Quality Learning

  Three research projects have shown excellent longitudinal data    High/Scope (Michigan) Abecedarian (North Carolina) Child-Parent Centers (Chicago) Children in these programs have scored higher on math and reading achievement tests than other children from same backgrounds, schools, and neighborhoods 67

68

Quality Learning, cont.

 High-quality early education is associated with positive outcomes for all children  what is high-quality education?

 safety, adequate space, and equipment   low adult-to-child ratio trained staff  curriculum geared to cognitive development  learning includes creative/constructive play 69

Chapter Ten

The Play Years: Psychosocial Development 70

Emotional Development

   Self Goals Emotions 71

Initiative vs. Guilt

 Erikson’s 3rd Stage  self-esteem emerges   self-concept—understanding of the self— develops spontaneous play becomes goal directed    attention span gets longer pride leads to concentration and persistence guilt is a negative consequence of this stage 72

Emotional Regulation

 Ability to direct or change one’s feelings   externalizing problems—difficulties arising from child’s tendency to externalize emotions outside the self, lashing out in impulsive anger and attacking other people or things internalizing problems—difficulties arising from child’s tendency to internalize emotions or inhibit their expression, being fearful and withdrawn 73

Neurons and Nurture

   Emotional regulation part of brain function  also learned through social awareness Genetic variations  some people naturally more emotionally expressive Early stress  .

result of damage during brain development either prenatally or postnatally via maternal drug use, illness, stress, or if infant malnourished, injured, or frightened 74

Neurons and Nurture, cont.

• Care History secure attachment = easier emotional regulation parenting practices securely attached: regulate emotions, show empathy insecurely attached: respond abnormally to other children’s distress ability to modulate and direct emotion essential to emotional intelligence 75

Cognition and Emotions

 First step to emotional regulation: awareness of own emotions and the emotional response of others  Emotional intelligence—Goleman’s term for the understanding of how to interpret and express emotions  develops throughout life, but crucial in early childhood  amygdala—emotional hotspot in prefrontal cortex of brain that children need to govern if they are to become balanced and empathic adults  parents can use children’s natural attachment to teach them how and when to express feelings 76

Empathy and Antipathy

  Empathy—understanding another person’s emotions  leads often to prosocial actions  helping another without obvious benefit to oneself Antipathy—disliking or hating someone else  may lead to antisocial behavior  injuring another person or destroying something that belongs to another 77

Empathy and Antipathy, cont.

  Sharing  freely done or directed by others Aggression     instrumental—used to obtain an object such as a toy reactive—involves retaliation for an act whether or not it was intentional relation—designed to inflect psychic (mental) pain bullying aggression—unprovoked attack 78

79

Learning Social Skills Through Play

• Peers—others of the same age and status peers make the best playmates play is most adaptive and productive activity of children 80

Active Play

• -

Rough-and-tumble play

helps child develop muscle strength and control caregivers should look for a “play face” when attempting to figure out if child is playing or fighting 81

Imaginative Play

• -

Sociodramatic play

helps child explore and rehearse social roles he/she has seen helps child test ability to convince others helps child regulate emotions through imagination helps child examine personal concerns in nonthreatening way 82

Parenting Patterns

 Parenting patterns influence child’s emotions 83

Baumrind’s Three Styles of Parenting

 Baumrind’s 4 important dimensions that influence parenting     expression of warmth or nurturance strategies for discipline quality of communication expectations for maturity 84

 Baumrind’s Three Styles of Parenting, cont.

3 Styles    authoritarian—high standards and expectations with low nurturance  children likely to become conscientious, obedient, and quiet—but not happy permissive—little control, but nurturing  children likely to lack self-control and are not happy authoritative—limits and guidance provided but willing to compromise  children are more likely to be successful, articulate, intelligent, and happy 85

86

Baumrind’s Three Styles of Parenting, cont.

 Recent studies have found link between parenting styles and child behavior less direct than Baumrind’s original research indicated    impact of child’s temperament influence of community and cultural differences on child’s perception of parenting in poor or minority families, authoritarian parenting tends to be used to produce high achieving, emotionally regulated children: strict and warm can be successful 87

Punishment

• Discipline an integral part of parenting 88

Techniques of Discipline

• • Culture is a strong influence expectations offenses punishments In United States • time-out is used child stops all activity and sits in corner or stays inside for a few minutes 89

Techniques of Discipline, cont.

 In deciding which technique to apply, parents should ask: How does technique relate to child?

 child’s temperament, age, and perceptions crucial considerations 90

What About Spanking?

  Reasons for parenting variations   culture, religion, ethnicity, national origin parents’ own upbringing Developmentalists fear children who are physically punished will learn to be more aggressive  domestic violence of any kind can increase aggression between peers and within families 91

The Challenge of Video

  Dilemma for parents about letting children watch television and play video games   parents find video a good babysitter parents believe video can sometimes be educational tool Experts suggest parents turn off the TV to avoid exposing children to video violence 92

The Evidence on Content

    Exposure to violence great—good guys and bad guys show violent behavior All good guys male; no non-white heroes Women/females portrayed as victims or adoring friends—not as leaders Content of video games even worse than than that of television  more violent, sexist, racist 93

The Evidence on Content, cont.

  Children, especially males, who watched educational television became teens who earned higher grades, read more Children, especially females, who watched violent television had lower grades 94

The Evidence on Content, cont.

 Content of video games crucial reason behind great concern of developmental researchers research shows that violent TV and video games push children to be more violent than they normally would be  computer games probably worse, as children are doing the virtual killing 95

The Evidence on Content, cont.

 Developmentalists look at the following to evaluate poor content perpetuation of sexist, ageist, and racist stereotypes depiction of violent solutions for every problem and no expression of empathy encouragement of quick, reactive, emotions rather than thoughtful regulation of emotions 96

Boy or Girl: So What?

 Male or female—important feature of self-concept   Sex differences—biological differences between males and females  far less apparent than in adulthood Gender differences—culturally imposed differences in roles and behaviors  more significant to children than to adults 97

Development of Gender Awareness

    By age 2, awareness of gender related preferences and play patterns By age 3, cognitive awareness of own gender By age 4, awareness of “gender appropriate” toys or roles By age 6, well-formed ideas and prejudices about own sex and the other sex 98

Theories of Gender Differences

 Psychoanalytic  Freud’s view: sexual attraction to opposite sex parent  phallic stage—according to Freud, 3rd stage of psychosexual development; occurring in early childhood when penis becomes the focus of psychological concern and physiological pleasure 99

Theories of Gender Differences, cont.

 Oedipus complex—according to Freud, occurring in the phallic stage, in which boys have sexual desire for their mothers and hostility towards their fathers; guilt and fear resolved by gender appropriate behavior 

Identification

 Superego—personality part that is self critical and judgmental  Electra complex—girls’ understanding they can’t replace mother, so want to be like her 100

Behaviorism

   Gender-appropriate behavior learned through observation and imitation Children learn gender-appropriate behavior by modeling it after that of people they want to imitate Especially for young boys, conformity to gender expectations rewarded, punished, modeled 101

Cognitive Theory

   Gender typing occurs after concept of gender has developed Once gender consistently conceived, child organizes world based on that understanding Gender schema organizes the world in terms of male and female internal motivation to conform to gender based cultural standards and stereotypes guides attention and behavior 102

Sociocultural Theory

   Gender values strenuously kept Many traditional cultures emphasize gender distinctions To break through restrictiveness of cultural expectations, some embrace the idea of androgyny—a balance of male and female psychological characteristics true androgyny possible if supported by whole culture 103

Epigenetic Theory

   Every aspect of human behavior a mix of genetics and environment  environment shapes, enhances, or halts genetic impulses Differences between male and female brains Environmental influences 104

Conclusion: Gender and Destiny

 5 theories lead to 2 conclusions and 1 question:   Gender differences are not simply cultural or learned—biological foundation much greater than originally suspected Biology is not destiny—environment and experiences shape children 105