Transcript A&P I Final Exam Cumulative Review Slides Spring 2014 Lectures 1-17 Body Regions Figure 1.7 in Textbook.

A&P I
Final Exam Cumulative Review Slides
Spring 2014
Lectures 1-17
1
Body Regions
Figure 1.7 in Textbook
2
Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical Position – body standing erect, facing forward,
upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward
Terms of Relative Position
• Superior versus Inferior
•Anterior versus Posterior
•Medial versus Lateral
•Ipsilateral versus Contralateral
•Proximal versus Distal
•Superficial versus Deep
3
Homeostasis
A CRITICAL (and very testable) concept in physiology
Body’s maintenance of a stable internal environment
**Absence of homeostasis = DISEASE
Homeostatic Mechanisms – monitor aspects of the
internal environment and corrects any changes
•Receptors - provide information about environment
•Control center - tells what a particular value should be
•Effectors - causes responses to change internal
environment
Negative feedback – deviation from set point progressively lessens
Positive feedback – deviation from set point gets progressively greater
4
Homeostasis
• Remember that homeostasis does NOT mean
constant!
– Continual variations occur in body systems
– Gives rise to ‘normal ranges’ (See Appendix B)
• Examples of negative feedback
– Temperature regulation, blood pressure, blood
glucose levels
• Examples of positive feedback
– Blood clotting, milk production, uterine contraction
5
Chemical Bond Summary
TYPE OF BOND
DEFINITION
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
IONIC
when atoms lose or gain
electrons becoming
ions, and then
oppositely charged ions
are attracted to one
another
bond is broken by water
salts, NaCl
COVALENT
when 1 or more pair(s) of
electrons is/are shared
by atoms
(single, double, triple)
strong bond
the bonds holding a
molecule of H20
together, CO2
HYDROGEN
when a (slightly positive)
hydrogen atom that is
already covalently
bonded to a molecule is
attracted to a slightly
negative atom.
Very weak bond; in
molecules whose
purpose is to easily
break and then come
back together
reactions between water
molecules (i.e. ice to
water to gas);
DNA chains
(typically with O, N)
6
Acids, Bases, and Salts
Electrolytes – soluble inorganic substances that release ions in
water (aqueous) and will conduct an electrical current
NaCl  Na+ + Cl-
Acids – substances that release hydrogen ions (protons) in water
HCl  H+ + Cl-
Bases – substances that release OH- (or other negative) ions in
water that can combine with, and remove, H+ from solution
NaOH  Na+ + OH-
Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid
and a base (anions/cations EXCEPT H+ or OH-)
HCl + NaOH  H2O + NaCl
7
pH (H+ concentration)
*Notice: [H+], pH, [OH-]
*Notice: [H+], pH, [OH-]
pH scale - indicates the concentration of FREE hydrogen ions in
solution (think: “power of Hydrogen”)
*pH of human blood plasma = 7.35 – 7.45 (AVG = 7.4)
Acids – substances that release hydrogen ions (protons) in water
Bases – substances that release OH- (or other negative) ions in
water that can combine with, and remove, H+ from solution
8
Organic Molecule
Carbohydrates (sugars)
Lipids (Fats)
Proteins
Nucleic
Acids
Composed of what
atoms?
C, H, O
C, H, O
C, H, O, N, S
C, H, O, N, P
Building Blocks
(monomers)
Monosaccharides, e.g.
hexoses
Triglycerides: glycerol
and 3 fatty acids
Phospholipid: glycerol,
2 FA, phosphate
amino acids
nucleotides: pentose
sugar, phosphate,
nitrogen base
Specific types &
functions of
monomers
Mono-; glucose,
fructose, galactose
TG: energy
Phospholipid: cell
membrane
component
Steroid: cell membrane
component and
chemical
messenger (i.e.
cholesterol)
20 different amino
acids; each differs
from the others
because of its
unique R group
N/A
N/A
proteins (>100 amino
acids);
Many functions:
ENZYMES,
antibodies, structure,
transport, chemical
messengers,
storage
DNA: deoxy-ribonucleic
acid; genetic
material; RNA:
ribonucleic acid; aids
DNA in protein
synthesis.
Saturated (only single
bonds between C’s
in fa chain) vs.
Unsaturated (at
least 1 double
bond in fa chain)
Amino acids are joined
together by peptide
bonds
DNA controls cellular
activity by
instructing our
cells what proteins
to make (i.e.
Enzymes through
protein synthesis).
Glucose = body’s
energy source
Specific types and
functions of
polymers
Other
Information
Disaccharides:
sucrose, lactose,
maltose; energy
_____________
Polysaccharides
Starch (plant);
Glycogen (animal);
energy storage.
Dipeptide = two aa
Tripeptide = three aa
9
Summary of Transport Processes
TRANSPORT
PROCESS
IS
ENERGY
NEEDED?
CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT
GENERAL
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
IN
HUMANS
SIGNIFICANCE
SIMPLE
DIFFUSION
NO
[HIGH]
TO
[LOW]
spreading out of
molecules to
equilibrium
O2 into cells;
CO2 out of cells.
Cellular
Respiration
FACILITATED
DIFFUSION
NO
[HIGH]
TO
[LOW]
Using a special
cm carrier
protein to move
something
through the cell
membrane (cm)
Process by which
glucose enters
cells
OSMOSIS
NO
[HIGH]
TO
[LOW]
water moving
through the cm to
dilute a solute
maintenance
of osmotic
pressure of 0.9%.
Same
FILTRATION
NO
[HIGH]
TO
[LOW]
using pressure to
push something
through a cm
(sprinkler hose)
manner in which
the kidney filters
things from
blood
removal of
metabolic wastes
10
Summary of Transport Processes
TRANSPORT
PROCESS
IS
ENERGY
NEEDED?
CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT
GENERAL
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
IN
HUMANS
ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
YES
[LOW]
TO
[HIGH]
opposite of
diffusion at
the expense
of energy
K+-Na+-ATPase
pump
maintenance of the
resting
membrane
potential
ENDOCYTOSIS
YES
[LOW]
TO
[HIGH]
bringing a
substance
into the cell
that is too
large to
enter by any
of the above
ways;
Phagocytosi: cell
eating;
Pinocytosis: cell
drinking.
Phagocytosed
(foreign)
particles
fuse with
lysosomes to
be destroyed
help fight infection
EXOCYTOSIS
YES
[LOW]
TO
[HIGH]
expelling a
substance
from the cell
into ECF
Exporting
proteins;
dumping
waste
Same
SIGNIFICANCE
11
Osmolarity and Tonicity
• Osmolarity of a solution is a measure of a solution’s
attraction for water and depends on the number of
particles ‘trapped’ in that solution
– Higher the osmolarity, the higher the solute concentration
– Higher the osmolarity, more strongly water is attracted
• Tonicity is a comparison of the osmolarity between
two solutions
– Equal osmolarity, no net water movement
– Unequal osmolarity, water will always move into the
more concentrated solution (from hypotonic to
hypertonic)
12
Osmotic Pressure/Tonicity
Osmotic Pressure (Osmolarity) – ability of solute to generate
enough pressure to move a volume of water by osmosis
*Osmotic pressure increases as the number of nonpermeable solutes
particles increases
0.9% NaCl
• isotonic – same
5.0% Glucose
osmotic pressure as a
second solution
• hypertonic – higher
osmotic pressure
• hypOtonic – lower
osmotic pressure
Crenation
The O in
o
hyp tonic
13
Passage of Materials through the Cell Membrane
Carrier/channel
proteins required
for all but fatsoluble molecules
and small
uncharged
molecules
oxygen, carbon
dioxide and other
lipid-soluble
substances diffuse
freely through the
membrane
14
Cellular Organelles
Table 1 of 2
CELL COMPONENT
DESCRIPTION/
STRUCTURE
FUNCTION(S)
CELL MEMBRANE
Bilayer of phospholipids with proteins
dispersed throughout
cell boundary; selectively permeable
(i.e. controls what enters and
leaves the cell; membrane
transport)
CYTOPLASM
jelly-like fluid (70% water)
suspends organelles in cell
NUCLEUS
Central control center of cell; bound
by lipid bilayer membrane;
contains chromatin (loosely
colied DNA and proteins)
controls all cellular activity by
directing protein synthesis (i.e.
instructing the cell what
proteins/enzymes to make.
NUCLEOLUS
dense spherical body(ies) within
nucleus; RNA & protein
Ribosome synthesis
RIBOSOMES
RNA & protein; dispersed throughout
cytoplasm or studded on ER
protein synthesis
ROUGH ER
Membranous network studded with
ribosomes
protein synthesis
SMOOTH ER
Membranous network lacking
ribosomes
lipid & cholesterol synthesis
GOLGI
“Stack of Pancakes”; cisternae
modification, transport, and packaging
of proteins
15
Cellular Organelles
Table 2 of 2
CELL COMPONENT
DESCRIPTION/
STRUCTURE
FUNCTION(S)
LYSOSOMES
Membranous sac of digestive enzymes
destruction of worn cell parts
(“autolysis) and foreign particles
PEROXISOMES
Membranous sacs filled with oxidase
enzymes (catalase)
detoxification of harmful substances
(i.e. ethanol, drugs, etc.)
MITOCHONDRIA
Kidney shaped organelles whose inner
membrane is folded into “cristae”.
Site of Cellular Respiration;
“Powerhouse of Cell”
FLAGELLA
long, tail-like extension; human sperm
locomotion
CILIA
short, eyelash extensions;
human trachea & fallopian tube
to allow for passage of substances
through passageways
MICROVILLI
microscopic ruffling of cell membrane
increase surface area
CENTRIOLES
paired cylinders of microtubules at
right angles near nucleus
aid in chromosome movement during
mitosis
16
Some Definitions…
*Chromatin – combination of DNA plus histone proteins
used to pack DNA in the cell nucleus
Gene – segment of DNA that codes for a protein or RNA
- About 30,000 protein-encoding genes in humans
- DNA’s instructions are ultimately responsible for the
ability of the cell to make ALL its components
Genome – complete set of genes of an organism
- Human Genome Project was complete in 2001
- Genomes of other organisms are important also
Genetic Code – method used to translate a sequence of
nucleotides of DNA into a sequence of amino acids
17
Cell Death
• Two mechanisms of cell death
– Necrosis
– Programmed cell death (PCD or apoptosis)
• Necrosis
– Tissue degeneration following suddent,
unexpected cellular injury or destruction
– Cellular contents released into the environment
causing an inflammatory response
• Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis)
– Orderly, intentional cell death
– Cellular contents are contained and cell is
immediately phagocytosed ; no inflammation
18
Transcription/Translation
• Transcription
– generates mRNA from DNA
– Occurs in nucleus of the cell
– Uses ribonucleotides to synthesize mRNA
• Translation
– generates polypeptides (proteins) from mRNA
– Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
– Uses 3 components:
1. mRNA – carries copy of genetic instructions from DNA; has
codons
2. tRNA w/aa; function as adapters in protein synthesis; has
anticodons
3. Ribosomes; provide scaffold for protein synthesis and has
enzymes that link adjacent amino acids
19
The Genetic Code
1. Codon – group of three ribonucleotides found in mRNA that specifies an aa
2. Anticodon – group of three ribonucleotides found in tRNA that allows specific hydrogen
bonding with mRNA
3. AUG is a start codon and also codes for MET. UAA, UAG, and UGA are stop codons that
terminate the translation of the mRNA strand.
20
Find the AMINO ACID SEQUENCE that corresponds to the following gene
region on the DNA:
Template -> G G T C T C A T T
Coding -> C C A G A G T A A
21
Enzymes and Metabolic Reactions
Biological catalysts, i.e., speed up reactions without being changed in the process.
• control rates of metabolic reactions
• lower activation energy needed to start reactions
• two important factors controlling enzyme activity: temperature and pH
• not consumed in
chemical reactions
• substrate specific
• shape of active site
determines which
substrate(s) the
enzyme can act on
Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
Many times the name of an enzyme ends with suffix ‘ase’
22
Cofactors and Coenzymes
Cofactors
• make some enzymes
active
• ions or coenzymes
Coenzymes
• complex organic molecules
that act as cofactors (so
coenzymes ARE cofactors)
• vitamins
• NAD+
Vitamins are essential organic substances that human
cells cannot synthesize, i.e., they must come from the diet
- required in very small amounts
- examples - B vitamins: Thiamine (B1), niacin
The protein parts of enzymes that need a nonprotein part
(coenzymes, cofactors) to work are called apoenzymes
23
ATP – An Activated Carrier Molecule
• each ATP molecule has three parts:
• an adenine molecule
These two components
together are called a ?
• a ribose molecule
• three phosphate molecules in a chain
• ATP carries its energy in the form or P
(phosphate)
• ATP is a readily interchangeable form of
energy for cellular reactions (“common
currency”) – makes it valuable!
Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
High-energy bonds
Be able to
explain or
diagram this
Figure from: Hole’s Human
A&P, 12th edition, 2010
24
Overview of Cellular Respiration
Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001
Anaerobic
ATP
e-
*Most ATP from here
Cellular
respiration
(aerobic)
e-
ETS
+ e-
e-
ATP
• Structural – Functional Relationship - Inner membrane:
• Contains Matrix where TCA cycle takes place
• Has enzymes and molecules that allow Electron Transport System to be carried out
25
Overview of Glucose Breakdown
NAD+
NADH
NAD+
NADH
NAD+, FAD
NADH
FADH2
Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010
26
Anaerobic Glycolysis & Lactic Acid
During glycolysis, if O2 is not
present in sufficient quantity,
lactic acid is generated to keep
glycolysis going so it continues to
generate ATP (even without
mitochondria)
Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010
NOTE what happens with and
without O2 being available…
27
Summary Table of Cell Respiration
Where it takes
place
Products Produced
Purpose
What goes on
GLYCOLYSIS
TCA
ETC
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Mitochondria
ATP
NADH
Pyruvate
Breakdown of glucose
(6 carbons) to 2
molecules of pyruvate
(3 carbons)
1. Glucose is
converted to pyruvate,
which is converted to
acetyl CoA when there
is sufficient O2
present.
2. Acetyl CoA enters
the TCA cycle.
3. If O2 is not present,
pyruvate is converted
to lactic acid to
replenish the supply of
NAD+ so glycolysis
can continue to make
ATP
ATP
NADH,FADH2
CO2
Generation of energy
intermediates (NADH,
FADH2, ATP) and CO2
ATP
NAD+,FAD
H2O
Generation of ATP and reduction
of O2 to H2O (Recall that
reduction is the addition of
electrons)
1. The energy in acetyl CoA 1. Chemiosmosis (that drives
is trapped in activated
oxidative phosphorylation) uses
carriers of electrons (NADH, the electrons donated by NADH
FADH2) and activated
and FADH2 to eject H+ from the
carriers of phosphate groups matrix of the mitochondria to the
(ATP).
intermembrane space.
2. The carries of electrons
that trap the energy from
2. These H+ then flow down
acetyl CoA bring their high
their concentration gradient
energy electrons to the
through a protein (ATP synthase)
electron transport chain.
that makes ATP from ADP and
phosphate.
3. During this process, the H+
that come through the channel in
ATP synthase are combined with
O2 to make H2O.
28
Cell Nucleus
• control center of cell
• nuclear envelope
(membrane)
• porous double membrane
• separates nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm (*eukaryotes only)
• nucleolus
• dense collection of RNA and proteins
• site of ribosome production
• chromatin
• fibers of DNA and proteins
• stores information for synthesis of
proteins
Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
29
The Cell Cycle
• series of changes a cell undergoes from
the time it forms until the time it divides
• stages
• interphase (G1, S, G2)
• mitosis
• cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis)
Figure From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson
Differentiated cells may spend all their time in ‘G0’ (neurons, skeletal muscle, red blood
cells). Stem cells may never enter G0
30
Mitosis and Meiosis
Figures from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001
Mitosis – production of two identical diploid daughter cells
Meiosis – production of four genetically varied, haploid gametes
31
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
• Specialized contacts with other cells
• Polarity (different ends of cell do different
things)
• Avascularity (no blood supply)
• Regeneration (can divide to make new
cells)
• Cellularity (lots of cells in close contact)
Remember: Epithelial tissues always have a
free surface and a basement membrane
32
Membranes
A membrane is a combination of epithelium and connective
tissue that covers and protects other structures and tissues.
Technically, then, a membrane is an organ.
Serous
• line body cavities that lack
openings to outside
• reduce friction
• inner lining of thorax and
abdomen
• cover organs of thorax and
abdomen (pleura,
pericardium, peritoneum)
• secrete serous fluid
Mucous
• line tubes and organs that
open to outside world
• lining of mouth, nose,
throat, digestive tract, etc.
• secrete mucus
Synovial
• surround joint cavities
Cutaneous
• covers body
• skin
33
Introduction to Inflammation
Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001
Histamine
Heparin
Histamine
Restoration of homeostasis after tissue injury or infections involves two processes: 1)
inflammation and 2) repair.
Major signs (hallmarks) of inflammation: Redness, heat, pain, swelling, loss of function
(Inflammation = ‘-itis’)
34
Glandular Epithelium
Composed of cells that are specialized to produce and secrete
substances
Endocrine glands are ductless – secrete directly into the blood
Exocrine glands have ducts – secrete into a duct or on to a surface
Unicellular exocrine gland
• composed of one cell
• Example: goblet cell
Multicellular exocrine gland
• composed of many cells
• Examples: sweat glands, sebaceous glands,
salivary glands, etc.
35
Connective Tissue (CT) Summary Table
Three main components of ALL CT: cell, fibers, ground substance
Name of
CT
CT Proper
Cartilage
Bone
Different types of
this CT
Main types of
fibers present
1) Areolar (Loose)
2) Dense regular
3) Dense irregular
4) Adipose
5) Reticular
6) Elastic
1) Fibroblasts
2) Fibroblasts
3) Fibroblasts
4) Adipocytes
5) Fibroblasts
6) Fibroblasts
1) Hyaline
2) Fibrocartilage
3) Elastic
1) Collagen (sparse)
(All) Chondrocytes 2) Collagen (dense)
3) Elastic
1) Dense
2) Spongy
Blood
--
Lymph
Main types of cells
present
--
(All) Osteocytes
1) RBCs
2) WBCs
3) Platelets (cell
fragments)
Lymphocytes
1) Collagen, Elastic
2) Collagen
3) Collagen
4) Reticular
5) Reticular
6) Elastic
Consistency of
matrix
Semi-liquid
Examples of Locations
1) Skin, between muscles
2) Tendons, ligaments
3) Dermis
4) Body fat areas
5) Stroma of liver, spleen
6) Lungs, airways,
arteries/heart
All types: Semisolid, gelatinous;
rubbery
1) Ribs, ends of bones
2) Intervertebral disks
3) Pinna of ear, epiglottis
Collagen
Solid
(hydroxyapatite)
1) Outer portions of bone
2) Inner portions of bone
Fibrinogen (soluble)
Liquid
Blood vessels, heart
Reticular (in stroma
of lymphoid organs)
Liquid
Lymph vessels
-cyte = fully differentiated; -blast = young, actively synthesizing cell
36
Components of Connective Tissue
Table from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010
Ground substance
- Exists between the fibers and cells
- Varies from semisolid to liquid
- Composed of large molecules, many of which are complex
combinations of polysaccharides and proteins
37
Skin Color/Thermoregulation
Diaphoresis - sweating with
visible wetness
Hyperthermia – higher than
normal body temp; corrected
by dilation of dermal blood
vessels, sweating.
Hypothermia – lower than
normal body temp; corrected
by constriction of dermal
blood vessels, shivering.
Physiological Factors affecting skin
color
• dilation of dermal blood vessels
(erythema – reddening of skin)
• constriction of dermal blood
vessels (less pink, pale = pallor)
• level of oxygenation of blood
* normal = pink (fair-skinned)
* low = bluish (cyanosis)
38
SKIN
Accessory Structures
Structures of the Integument
Epidermis = protection; Dermis = nourishment of epidermis; SubQ = insulation
Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001
39
Functions of Integument
• The Integumentary System has numerous
functions that are related to its composition
and structure
–
–
–
–
–
Protection
Temperature regulation (sweat, blood vessels)
Excretion
Vitamin D production
Sensation (touch, pressure)
• The epidermis – the outer, protective layer
– S. basale, s. spinosum, s. granulosum, s. lucidum
(thick skin only), s. corneum
40
Dermis and Hypodermis
• The dermis – the lower, nutritive layer
– Papillary dermis (areolar CT)
– Reticular dermis (dense irregular CT)
– Dermis contains accessory organs of skin
• The hypodermis (subcutaneous, superficial fascia)
–
–
–
–
Insulates (areolar CT with abundant fat)
Reservoir of blood
Stabilizes dermis
NOT part of the skin
41
Hail, Nails, Glands of Integument
• Accessory structures of the integumentary
system
– Hair – warmth, protection
– Nails – defense; picking up objects
– Sweat glands
• Apocrine (merocrine) - odoriferous
• Eccrine (merocrine) - thermoregulation
• Modified (mammary, ceruminous)
– Sebaceous glands
• Secrete sebum (waxy, fatty substance)
• Lubricate/protect hair and skin
• Sebum is antibacterial
42
Compact and Spongy Bone
Each bone in the skeleton contains two forms of osseous tissue
- Compact bone (cortical) – solid (with osteons as structural units); found on outer
parts of bone
- Spongy (cancellous, trabecular) bone – network of struts and plates (trabeculae);
found within the inner parts of bone
Figure from: Hole’s Human A&P, 12th edition, 2010
43
Epiphyseal Plates
Epiphyseal cartilage = epiphyseal plate; allows long bones to grow in length
44
Homeostasis of Bone Tissue
Bone remodeling is a process that continues throughout life, and is accomplished
by two processes:
1) Bone Resorption – action of osteoclasts and parathyroid hormone (PTH)
2) Bone Deposition – action of osteoblasts and calcitonin
• FACTORS AFFECTING REMODELING, GROWTH AND REPAIR OF BONE
•Mineral salts, especially Calcium and Phosphorus
• Deficiencies of vitamins A, C, and D
• Deficiency of Vitamin A – retards bone development
• Deficiency of Vitamin C – results in fragile (brittle) bones
• Deficiency of Vitamin D – rickets, osteomalacia
• Growth factors and Hormones
• Sex Hormones – promote bone formation; stimulate ossification (closure) of epiphyseal
plates
• Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) – stim. by hGH
• Insufficient Growth Hormone – pituitary dwarfism
• Excessive Growth Hormone – gigantism, acromegaly
• Insufficient Thyroid Hormone – delays bone growth
• Physical Stress (exercise) – stimulates bone growth
45
Axial Skeleton - Thoracic Cage
• True = 7 pairs
• False = 3 pairs
• Floating = 2 pairs
46
Synovial Joints
* Diarthrotic (freely movable)
Structural features of
diarthrotic joints
- joint cavity*
- articular cartilage
- synovial membrane
- synovial fluid
- reinforcing ligaments,
bursae and tendons
Synovial fluid: Lubricates, distributes nutrients, and absorbs shock
47
Divisions of the Pelvis
(Greater)
(Lesser)
Pelvic brim = (sacral promontory, sacral ala, arcuate line, pectineal line, pubic crest) x 2
48
Joint Classification
Structural Classification of Joints
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial (D)
Suture (S)
Synchondrosis (S)
Gliding (N)
Syndesmosis (A)
Symphysis (A)
Hinge (M)
Gomphosis (S)
(S) = Synarthrosis
(A) = Amphiarthrosis
(D) = Diarthrosis
(N) = Nonaxial
(M) = Monaxial
(B) = Biaxial
(P) = Polyaxial
Pivot (M)
Condyloid (B)
Saddle (B)
Ball/Socket (P)
This would be a really good chart to know for the exam!
49
Synovial Joint Movements Summary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Flexion – decrease in angle between bones
Extension – increase in angle between bones
ABduction – movement away from midline
ADduction – movement toward midline
Circumduction – Movement of the distal end of a limb in a
circle
Supination – palm facing anteriorly
Pronation – palm facing posteriorly
Protraction – anterior movement in transverse plane
Retraction – posterior movement in transverse plane
Dorsiflexion – Superior surface of foot moves superiorly
Plantar flexion – Inferior surface of foot moves inferiorly
50
Know Actions of These Muscles
Muscle Name
Location
Action
Masseter
Trapezius
Cheek in front of ear
Upper shoulder
Sternocleidomastoid
Side of neck
Deltoid
Biceps brachii
Triceps brachii
Abdominal muscles
External oblique
Internal oblique
Rectus abdominis
Shoulder
Front of upper arm
Back of upper arm
Elevates mandible (raises lower jaw)
Elevates clavicle;
Extends neck
Rotates head;
Flexes head toward shoulder
Abduction at shoulder
Flexion at elbow and shoulder
Extension at elbow
Front and side of abdomen
Flex trunk (vertebral column); depress ribs (as in forced
exhalation)
Pectoralis major
Latissimus dorsi
Orbicularis Oris
Orbicularis Oculi
Temporalis
Gluteus maximus
Hamstring group
Biceps femoris
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Front of upper chest
Upper back
Around mouth
Around eye
Side of head (skull)
Buttocks
Back of thigh
Lateral part of thigh
Medial part of thigh
Medial part of thigh
Flexion, adduction, and medial rotation of shoulder
Extension, adduction, and rotation of shoulder
Compresses, purses lips
Closes eye
Elevates mandible
Extension and lateral rotation at hip
Flexes knee/extend thigh (all muscles in group)
Quadriceps group
Rectus femoris
Vastus lateralis
Vastus medials
Vastus intermedius
Front of thigh
Middle
Lateral
Medial
Deep
Extends knee (all muscles in group)
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Organization of Skeletal Muscle
Gross: Muscle (and fascia/epimysium), fascicle (and perimysium)
Histological: Fiber (cell), endomysium
Molecular: Myofibrils, sarcomere structure, actin/myosin arrangement
• epimysium (around
muscle)
• perimysium
(around fascicles)
• endomysium
(around fibers, or
cells)
Alphabetical order largest to smallest: fascicle, fiber, fibril, and filament
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Skeletal Muscle Fiber (Cell)
Fully differentiated, specialized cell – its structures are given special names
• sarcolemma (plasma membrane)
• sarcoplasm (cytoplasm)
• sarcoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• transverse tubule
• triad
• cisternae of sarcoplasmic reticulum
(2)
• transverse tubule
• myofibril (1-2 µm diam.)
Figure from: Saladin, Anatomy &
Physiology, McGraw Hill, 2007
Transverse tubules contain extracellular fluid ( [Na+],  [K+])
Sarcoplasmic reticulum is like the ER of other cells; but it contains  [Ca2+ ]
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Structure of the Sarcomere
‘A’ in A band
stands for
Anisotropic
(dArk)
‘I’ in I band stands
for Isotropic
(LIght)
Zones of non-overlap: I band (thin filaments), and H zone (thick filaments)
A sarcomere runs from Z line (disk) to Z line (disk)
Figure from: Saladin, Anatomy & Physiology, McGraw Hill, 2007
54
Summary of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
- Bind (Ca, myosin)
- Move
- Detach
- Reset
Contraction
Relaxation
Latent period – time between motor nerve stimulation and contraction of skeletal muscle
55
Modes of ATP Synthesis During Exercise
Muscle stores enough ATP for about 4-6 seconds worth of contraction, but is the
only energy source used directly by muscle. So, how is energy provided for
prolonged contraction?
Continual shift from one energy source to another rather
than an abrupt change
Figures From: Marieb & Hoehn, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 9th ed., Pearson, 2013
56
Types of Contractions
• isotonic – muscle contracts and
changes length
• concentric – shortening contraction
• eccentric – lengthening
contraction
• isometric – muscle “contracts” but does not change length
57
Motor Unit and Muscle Tone
• Motor unit - single motor neuron plus all muscle fibers
controlled by that motor neuron
• whole muscle composed of many motor
units
• recruitment - increase in the number of
motor units activated to perform a task
• as intensity of stimulation increases,
recruitment of motor units continues until
all motor units are activated
• smaller motor units recruited first
• larger motor units recruited later
• produces smooth movements
• muscle tone – continuous state of partial contraction
558
Table from: Martini & Ober, Visual A&P, 2011
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
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Skeletal Muscle Actions
• origin – immovable* end
• insertion – movable end
• agonist (prime mover ) –
primarily responsible for
movement
• synergists – assist prime
mover
• antagonist – resist prime
mover’s action and cause
movement in the opposite
direction
Figure from: Saladin, Anatomy &
Physiology, McGraw Hill, 2007
Understand these terms
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