Transcript Intro to Carbon-based Molecules: Organic Chemistry
Bell Ringer
What is the importance of Carbon in living things?
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Explain what organic chemistry means?
What is a polymer?
What is a monomer?
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What is a monosaccaride? Give an example.
What is a disaccaride? Give an example.
What is a polysaccaride? Give an example.
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Compare the structure of monosaccarides, disaccarides, and polysaccarides.
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Are Carbohydrates monomers, polymers or both? Explain.
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What 4 types of carbon compounds are essential for living things?
Provide an example for each.
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How do plants get the nitrogen they need (where and what form)?
What do plants do with the nitrogen?
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Are proteins monomers or polymers or both? Explain.
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Intro to Carbon-based Molecules: Organic Chemistry
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Carbon-based Molecules
Although a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based molecules Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds Copyright Cmassengale 10
Organic vs. Inorganic
All compounds can be classified into 2 broad categories: Organic Compounds- contain carbon atoms Examples: Proteins, DNA, Sugars, Fats Inorganic Compounds- do not contain carbon atoms Examples: Ammonium (NH 4 + ) and Nitrate (NO 3 ) Copyright Cmassengale 11
Carbon is a Versatile Atom
It has four electrons valence Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds Copyright Cmassengale 12
Carbon can use its bonds to::
Attach to other carbons Form an endless diversity of carbon skeletons (chains, branched chains, and rings) Copyright Cmassengale 13
Hydrocarbons
The simplest carbon compounds … Contain only carbon & hydrogen atoms Copyright Cmassengale 14
Large Hydrocarbons:
Are the main molecules in the gasoline we burn in our cars The hydrocarbons of fat molecules provide energy for our bodies Copyright Cmassengale 15
Shape of Organic Molecules
Each type of organic molecule has a unique three-dimensional shape The shape determines its function in an organism Copyright Cmassengale 16
Giant Molecules - Polymers
Large molecules that consist of repeated, linked units are called polymers Polymers are built from smaller, simpler molecules called monomers Biologists call these large polymers macromolecules Copyright Cmassengale 17
Examples of Macromolecules
Proteins Lipids Carbohydrates Nucleic Acids Copyright Cmassengale 18
Most Macromolecules are Polymers
Polymers are made by stringing together many smaller molecules called monomers Nucleic Acid Monomer (Nucleotide) Nucleic Acid Polymer (DNA) Copyright Cmassengale 19
Linking Monomers to Make Polymers
Cells link monomers by a process called condensation or dehydration synthesis (removing a molecule of water to form bonds) Remove H
H 2 O Forms
Remove OH EX: This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar Each time a monomer is added to a polymer, a water molecule is released Copyright Cmassengale 20
Breaking Down Polymers
Cells break down macromolecules by a process called hydrolysis (adding a molecule of water to break bonds). This is the reverse of a condensation reaction.
Water added to split a double sugar Copyright Cmassengale 21
Macromolecules in Organisms
There are four categories of large molecules in cells: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Copyright Cmassengale 22
Carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates
Organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1 Can exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides Copyright Cmassengale 24
Monosaccharides:
Called simple sugars Monomers of Carbohydrates Include glucose, fructose, & galactose Have the same chemical, but different structural formulas (Isomers) C 6 H 12 O 6 Copyright Cmassengale 25
Monosaccharides
Glucose- main source of energy for cells Fructose -found in fruits Galactose – found in milk -OSE ending means SUGAR Copyright Cmassengale 26
Isomers
Glucose & fructose are isomers because they’re structures are different, but their chemical formulas are the same Copyright Cmassengale C 6 H 12 O 6 27
Rings
In aqueous (watery) solutions, monosaccharides form ring structures Copyright Cmassengale 28
Cellular Fuel
Monosaccharides are the main fuel work that cells use for cellular Copyright Cmassengale Glucose Ring Structure 29
Disaccharides
A disaccharide is a double sugar They’re made by joining two monosaccharides Involves removing a water molecule (condensation) Bond called a GLYCOSIDIC bond Copyright Cmassengale 30
Disaccharides
Common disaccharides include :
Sucrose (table sugar )
Lactose (Milk Sugar)
Maltose (Grain sugar
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Disaccharides
Sucrose is composed of glucose + fructose Maltose is composed of 2 glucose molecules Lactose is made of galactose + glucose Copyright Cmassengale 32
Polysaccharides
Complex carbohydrates Composed of many monosaccharides linked together to form a polymer Copyright Cmassengale 33
Examples of Polysaccharides
Glucose Monomer Starch Glycogen Cellulose Copyright Cmassengale 34
Starch
Starch is an example of a polysaccharide in plants It includes only glucose monomers Plant cells store starch for energy Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the human diet Copyright Cmassengale 35
Glycogen
Glycogen is an example of a polysaccharide in animals. It is a branched chain of glucose monomers Animals store glycogen for energy Glycogen is similar in structure to starch because BOTH are made of glucose monomers Copyright Cmassengale 36
Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth It provides structure and support to plant cell walls It is a major component of wood It is also known as dietary fiber Copyright Cmassengale 37
Cellulose
SUGARS Copyright Cmassengale 38
Dietary Cellulose
Most animals cannot digest cellulose to get nutrients They have bacteria in their digestive tracts that can break down cellulose Copyright Cmassengale 39
Sugars in Water
Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve readily in water WATER MOLECULE They are hydrophilic, or “water loving” -OH groups make them water soluble SUGAR MOLECULE Copyright Cmassengale 40
Lipids
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Lipids
Large, nonpolar organic molecules
Lipids are hydrophobic –”water fearing” Do NOT mix with water Includes triglycerides, phospholipids fats, waxes, steroids, pigments& oils More carbon and hydrogen atoms than oxygen atoms Copyright Cmassengale 42
Function of Lipids
Fats store energy (more than carbohydrates) in long term storage , help to insulate the bod y, and cushion and protect organs Copyright Cmassengale 43
Types of Fatty Acids
Saturated fatty acids between carbons ) have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (all single bonds Unsaturated fatty acids between carbons ) have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (a double bond Copyright Cmassengale 44
Types of Fatty Acids
Double bond in carbon chain Copyright Cmassengale Single Bonds in Carbon chain 45
Triglyceride
Composed of Glycerol & 3 fatty acid chains Glycerol forms the “backbone” of the fat Copyright Cmassengale Organic Alcohol (-OL ending) 46
Triglyceride
Glycerol Fatty Acid Chains Copyright Cmassengale 47
Fats in Organisms
Most animal fats have a high proportion of saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at room temperature (butter, margarine, shortening) Copyright Cmassengale 48
Fats in Organisms
Most plant and fish oils tend to be low in saturated fatty acids and high in unsaturated fatty acids & exist as liquids at room temperature (oils ) Copyright Cmassengale 49
Fats
Dietary fat consists largely of the molecule triglyceride composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains Fatty Acid Chain Glycerol Condensation links the fatty acids to Glycerol Copyright Cmassengale 50
Waxes
A wax is a structural lipid Contains a long fatty-acid chain joined to a long alcohol chain.
Waxes are waterproof and form protective coatings on plants and protective layers in animals (such as earwax) Copyright Cmassengale 51
Lipids & Cell Membranes
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Cell membranes are made of lipids called phospholipids Phospholipids have a water (hydrophilic) head that is polar & attract Phospholipids also have 2 tails that are nonpolar and do not attract water (hydrophobic) Copyright Cmassengale 52
Steroids
The carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to form 4 fused rings Cholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroids Testosterone Cholesterol Estrogen Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids Copyright Cmassengale 53
Nucleic Acids
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Nucleic Acids
Store and transfer hereditary (genetic) information Contain information for making all the body’s proteins Two types exist --- DNA & RNA Made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorous Copyright Cmassengale 55
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Nucleic Acids
Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or T) Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Phosphate group Thymine (T) Sugar (deoxyribose) Phosphate Suga r Nucleotide Copyright Cmassengale Base 57
Nucleotide – Nucleic acid monomer
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Nucleic Acids
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Bases
Each DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases:
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Adenine (A)
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Guanine (G)
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Thymine (T)
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Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Adenine (A) Copyright Cmassengale Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) 60
Nucleotide Monomers
Backbone Form long chains called DNA Nucleotide Nucleotides are joined by sugars & phosphates on the side Bases Copyright Cmassengale DNA strand 61
DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Two strands of DNA join together to form a double helix Base pair Contains the sugar deoxyribose Copyright Cmassengale Double helix 62
RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or U) Ribose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl group It has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) Phosphate group Sugar (ribose) Uracil Copyright Cmassengale 63
ATP – Cellular Energy
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ATP is used by cells for energy Adenosine triphosphate Made of a nucleotide phosphate groups with 3 Copyright Cmassengale 64
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Energy ATP – Cellular Energy is stored in the chemical bonds
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of ATP The last 2 phosphate bonds are HIGH ENERGY Breaking the last phosphate bond releases energy for cellular work and produces ADP and a free phosphate ADP (adenosine Diphosphate) rejoined to the free phosphate to make more ATP can be Copyright Cmassengale 65
Proteins
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Proteins
Proteins are polymers made of monomers called amino acids
Composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
All proteins are made of 20 different amino acids linked in different orders Copyright Cmassengale 67
20 Amino Acid Monomers
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Structure of Amino Acids
Amino acids have a central carbon with 4 things bonded to it: Amino group –NH 2 Carboxyl group -COOH Amino group Hydrogen -H Side group -R R group Carboxyl group Leucine -hydrophobic Side groups Serine-hydrophillic Copyright Cmassengale 69
Linking Amino Acids
Cells link amino acids together to make proteins The process is called condensation or dehydration Peptide bonds form to hold the amino acids together Carboxyl Amino Side Group Dehydration Synthesis Peptide Bond Copyright Cmassengale 70
Dipeptide - two amino acids bonded together Polypeptide - long chains of amino acids.
Proteins are composed of one or more polypeptides Copyright Cmassengale 71
Functions of Proteins
1. Enzymes (saliva and catalase) 2.Structure (keratin and collagen) 3.Transport (molecules in and out of cell) 4.Movement (muscles) 5.Defense against disease (antibodies) 6.Storage (bean seed proteins) 7.Others
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Proteins as Enzymes
Many proteins act as biological catalysts or enzymes Thousands of different enzymes exist in the body Enzymes control the rate of chemical reactions by energy weakening bonds, thus lowering the amount of activation needed for the reaction Copyright Cmassengale 73
Enzymes
Enzymes are globular proteins.
Their folded conformation creates an area known as the active site. The nature and arrangement of amino acids in the active site make it specific for only one type of substrate (the reactant being catalyzed).
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Enzyme + Substrate = Product Copyright Cmassengale 75
How the Enzyme Works
Enzymes are reusable!!!
Active site changes SHAPE Called INDUCED FIT Copyright Cmassengale 76
Primary Protein Structure
The primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids in a protein Called polypeptide Amino Acid Copyright Cmassengale 77
Protein Structures
Secondary protein structures occur when protein chains coil or fold When protein chains called polypeptides join together, the tertiary structure forms because R groups interact with each other In the watery environment of a cell, proteins become globular in their quaternary structure Copyright Cmassengale 78
Protein Structures or CONFORMATIONS Hydrogen bond Pleated sheet Amino acid (a) Primary structure Hydrogen bond Alpha helix (b) Secondary structure (c) Tertiary structure Polypeptide (single subunit) (d) Quaternary structure Copyright Cmassengale 79
Denaturing Proteins
Changes in temperature & pH can denature (unfold) a protein so it no longer works Cooking denatures protein in eggs Milk protein separates into curds & whey when it denatures Copyright Cmassengale 80
Changing Amino Acid Sequence Substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease 1 (a) Normal red blood cell 2 3 4 5 6 7. . . 146 Normal hemoglobin 1 (b) Sickled red blood cell 2 3 4 5 6 7. . . 146 Sickle-cell hemoglobin Copyright Cmassengale 81
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Other Important Proteins
Blood sugar level is controlled by a protein called Insulin causes the liver to uptake and store excess sugar as Glycogen The cell membrane proteins insulin Receptor proteins also contains help cells recognize other cells Copyright Cmassengale 82
INSULIN Cell membrane with proteins & phospholipids Copyright Cmassengale 83
Summary of Key Concepts
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Macromolecules
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Macromolecules
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