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16. Automation
WHY AUTOMATE
1. impossible or hazardous
3. extend human capability (aid human)
2. difficult or unpleasant
4. technically possible
STAGES AND LEVELS OF AUTOMATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
information acquisition, selection, and filtering – selective attention --automatic highlighting
information integration – perception and working memory -- predictor displays
action selection and choice – traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)
control and action execution – autopilots, cruise control, automatic car windows
8 levels of automation to stages 3 and 4 (Sheridan, 2002)
PROBLEMS IN AUTOMATION
Automation Reliability
reliable – it does what the human operator expects it to do
not the reliability per se but the perceived reliability
why automation may be perceived as unreliable
1. it may be unreliable
2. there may be certain situations in which the automation is not designed to operate or
may not perform well
3. the human operator may incorrectly set up the automation – dumb and dutiful
4. due to poor mental model, it appears to be acting erroneously to the operator
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Trust: Calibration and Mistrust
trust should be well calibrated – trust should be in direct proportion to its reliability (mistrust)
Human trust in automation is not entirely well calibrated (distrust/overtust)
distrust is a type of mistrust where the person fails to trust the automation as much as is
appropriate – are not necessarily severe, but may lead to inefficiency
Overtrust and Complacency
overtrust occurs when people trust the automation more than is warranted – severe
negative consequences if the automation is less than fully reliable
The cause of complacency – human tendency to let experience guide our expectancies –
perceived perfect reliability cease monitoring or far less frequently
Automation has three distinct implications for human intervention
1. detection: the complacent operator will likely be slower to detect a real failure; the more
reliable, the rarer the signal events, and the poorer their detection
2. situation awareness – better aware with active participation (generation effect) – out of the
loop, poor feedback of the automated process
3. skill loss (deskilling) – the gradual loss of skills
1. less self-confident in performance more likely to continue to use automation
2. degrade the operator’s ability to intervene approximately (fig 16.1)
Workload and Situation Awareness
as automation level moves up the scale, both workload and SA tend to go down
clumsy automation – automation makes easy tasks easier and hard tasks harder
Training and Certification
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Loss of Human Cooperation
Job Satisfaction
FUNCTION ALLOCATION BETWEEN THE PERSON AND AUTOMATION
Fitts’s List (Table 16.2)
HUMAN-CENTERED AUTOMATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
keeping the human informed
keeping the human trained
keeping the operator in the loop
selecting appropriate stages and levels when automation is imperfect (fig 16.2)
making the automation flexible and adaptive
maintaining a positive management philosophy
SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND AUTOMATION-BASED COMPLEX SYSTEM
automation is not optional, but necessity -- production of continuous quantities (chemical
process control), production of discrete quantities (manufacturing control), robotics control
how to support the supervisor in times of failures and fault management knowledgebased behavior, predictor displays, ecological interface
robotics control in manufacturing and in navigating UAV
hortatory control – the systems being controlled retains a high degree of autonomy
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17. Transportation Human Factors
AUTOMOTIVE HUMAN FACTORS
Task Analysis of the Vehicle Roadway System
Strategic, Tactical, and Control Aspects of Driving
strategic tasks – deciding where to go, when to go and how to get there
tactical tasks – choice of maneuvers and immediate goals in getting to a destination such
as speed selection, the decision to pass another vehicle, and the choice of lanes
control tasks – moment-to-moment operation of the vehicle such as maintaining a desired
speed, keeping the desired distance from the car ahead, keeping the car in the lane
Control Task
two-dimensional tracking task of vehicle control
the lateral task of maintaining lane position – 2nd-order control task with preview and
a predictor the best measure is the time to lane crossing (TLC)
longitudinal task as a first-order tracking task of speed keeping
three channels of visual information to be tracked along the two axes
1. lateral tracking by the roadway curvature
2. longitudinal tracking by the flow of motion along the roadway and the location or
distance of hazards and traffic control devices
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Multitask Demands
primary control task -- lane keeping and roadway hazard monitoring dependent upon
primary vision attention lobe (PVAL) of information (fig 17.1 and 17.2)
inattention, competing visual tasks
secondary motor activity – conflict with monitoring and processing and visual information in
the PVAL
Cabin Environment
create the simplest, most user-friendly design of the internal displays and controls
Displays – high contrast, interpretable, easy to read
Task environment within the vehicle – avoid unnecessary features and gizmos
Controls – consistently located, adequately separated, compatibly linked to displays
Visibility
Anthropometry
anthropometric factors of seating – reachability of different controls
design for the mean is not appropriate -- controls accessible and interpretable
Illumination
adequate highway lightning, adequate reflectors
Signage
1) minimize visual clutter from unnecessary signs
2) locate signs consistently
3) identify sign classes distinctly – color, shape
4) allow signs to be read efficiently
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Resource Competition
serious distraction of in-cab viewing – the number and duration of glances – feel safe less
than 0.8 sec/glance, 3 sec between glances
auditory display, speech recognition, HUD
Hazards and Collisions
Control Loss
slick or icy road conditions, narrow lanes and momentarily lapses in attention, rapid overcorrection (minor lane departure) – roadway departure because of fatigue
directly related to the bandwidth of correction – vehicle speed
Visible markings of lane edges, turtles, rumblestrips
Hazard Response
poor visibility and inattention can cause a failure to detect hazards
the time to react to unexpected objects (the perception-reaction time or brake reaction time)
– 1 to 2 sec (0.2 to 0.3 sec from accelerator to brake), mean of 1.5 sec
Speeding
quadruple threat to driver safety – (1) increases the likelihood of control loss; (2)
decreases the probability of detecting hazard in time; (3) increases the distance traveled
before a successful avoidance maneuver; (4) increases the damage at impact (fig 17.3)
why do people speed?
perceptual biases (underestimating true speed) – size biased distance judgments;
bias to overspeed (quieter engines, higher seating position above the ground, less
visible ground texture), adaptation
cognitive biases (overestimating the ability to stop in time)
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Risky Behavior
cognitive biases to overspeeding – overconfidence (underestimation of risk), expectancy (no
experience of a collision – little effect on the behavior of survivors)
The Impaired Driver
Fatigue
over 50% of the accidents leading to the death of a truck driver and over 10% of all fatal car
accidents
Alcohol
the most effective interventions may be social norming
Age
Young drivers – Less skilled and knowledgeable, overconfidence
Eldery – Information processing impairments
Impairment Interactions
Driving Safety Improvements (Haddon’s Matrix, table 17.2)
Driver Characteristics: Training and Selection
higher accident rates were related with limited skills (for the very young driver) and limited
information processing abilities (for the elderly)
graduated licensing for younger drivers, more frequent driving test
the standard visual acuity test – very little relevance for driving dynamic visual acuity
Driver Characteristics: Driver Adaptation and Risk Calibration
risk homeostasis model – partially consistent motive for driving faster and force of habit
any safety intervention must consider the tendency for people to adapt to the new situation
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Driver Characteristics: Regulatory Compliance
effective enforcement of speed limits can make a difference – automatic speed management
system, automated systems for issuing tickets
Driver and Vehicle Characteristics: Fitness to Drive
driver monitoring system -- monitoring the vehicle (e.g., steering behavior) and the driver
(e.g., blinking rate, EEG)
Vehicle Characteristics: Sensing and Warnings
high mounted brake lights, trilight system
Roadway Characteristics: Expectancy
positive guidance, light cycle
expectancy and standardization on sign location and interaction design
reduce the consequence of an accident – seat belt, airbag, guardrail for SUVs
Driver and Vehicle Characteristics: Use of Protective Devices
AUTOMATIVE AUTOMATION
Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) – collision warning systems, automated navigation
systems, driver monitors – GPS system, traffic sensing devices, digital map database,
wireless connection
1. user trust and complacency
2. attention may be drawn more into the vehicle
3. introduce a new type of productivity and safety tradeoff in driving
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PUBLIC GROUND TRANSPORTATION
Maritime Human Factors
fatigue and crew reductions
extremely sluggish in their handling qualities, benefiting from predictive displays
Aviation Human Factors
The Tasks
primary multiaxis tracking task -- aviating
maintaining situation awareness, navigating to three-dimensional points, following
procedures, communicating with controllers and other pilots, monitoring system status
competition -- visual, perceptual, cognitive, and response-related resources
Tracking and Flight Control
6 degrees of freedom of motion
rotational axes -- pitch, roll (or bank), and yaw
translational axes – lateral, vertical, and longitudinal
two primary goals
aviating -- keeping the plane from stalling by maintaining adequate air flow over the
wings, which produces lift control of the airspeed and attitude (pitch and roll)
navigate the aircraft to points in the 3-D airspace (4-D navigation with time)
1. yoke controls the elevators and ailerons – pitch and bank (first-order dynamics)
2. throttle controls airspeed
3. rudder pedals help coordinate turning and heading changes
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three facets make the multielements tracking task much more difficult
1. displays do not show a good, integrated, pictorial representation of the aircraft
2. the dynamics of several aspects of flight control are higher order
3. the axes often have cross-couplings
Maintaining Situation Awareness
achieving SA through display design -- HUD
Following Procedures
to assist the pilot’s prospective memory – knowledge in the world in the checklist
two kinds of errors in following checklists
1. top-down processing (coupled with time pressure) may lead to see the item in its
appropriate state, even if it is not
2. distractions can lead the pilot to skip a step in the checklist
redundant participation, automation
The Social Context
breakdowns in pilot team performance junior vs. senior CRM (cockpit/crew resource
management)
Supporting the Pilot
1. maintenance technicians and their inspection and trouble shooting skills
2. aircraft automation – human-centered automation
3. air traffic control
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18. Selection and Training
PERSONNEL SELECTION
predicting future job performance; categorize accepted applicants into the job type
interviews, work histories, background checks, tests, references, work samples
signal detection theory hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection
Basics of Selection
job analysis – selection, training, performance appraisal, setting salary levels tasks,
environments, related knowledge, skills, & abilities
already have the task-specific knowledge and skills required or show evidence of basic
knowledge and abilities
criterion-related validity – Fig. 18.1
Selection Tests and Procedures
Measures of Cognitive Ability
Cognitive ability tests valid predictors of job performance, more valid than any others
complex jobs (general intelligence – working memory capacity); high complexity (verbal
and numerical ability); low complexity (motor coordination and manual dexterity)
Measures of Physical Ability and Psychomotor Skills
physical strength, physical endurance, manual dexterity, and/or psychomotor skills
Personality Assessment
clinical measures – mental illness or behavioral disorders – not appropriate
personality dimensions – five basic personality factors/clusters
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Work Samples and Job Knowledge
work sampling – expensive to assess
video assessment – see a short scenario and respond in the situation
job knowledge test – high transferable knowledge to the job, motivation factor
Structured Interviews
questions based on and related to knowledge and skills identified in the job analysis
describe previous work behavior critical behavior interview – discuss recent occasions
when they felt they were performing at their best
PERFORMANCE SUPPORT AND JOB AIDS
performance-support approach as needed basis, shifting a ‘learn-and-apply’ to ‘learningwhile-applying’ cycle
performance support – the process of providing a set of information and learning activities
in a context-specific fashion during task performance efficient because of less taxing on
memory – Fig. 18.2
Job Aids and Instructions
job aids - daily to-do list, recipe, note cards, computer templates, instructions for
assembling a product, procedural lists
traditional instruction manual Wright’s quidelines -- caution against using prose, effective
use of pictures (redundancy gain), proximity-compatibility principle
voice coupled with pictures when presenting instructions
Embedded Computer Support
on-line help system – adaptive automation interrupting the ongoing task
when to use performance support, training, or both – table 18.1
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TRAINING
Learning and Expertise
three different stages in the development of expertise (fig. 18.4, 18.5)
1. knowledge about a job or a task characterized by declarative knowledge – not well
organized, fragile
2. with familiarity and practice, procedural knowledge by rules and if-then statements
3. automaticity
Methods for Enhancing Training
the best training in the shortest time, to the longest retention, the least expensive
Practice and Overlearning
overlearning beyond error-free performance
improving in the speed of performance involving cognitive or motor aspects
automaticity important in skills with high multitasking requirements
decrease the rate of forgetting and increase the ease of a task
Encouraging Deep, Active, and Meaningful Processing
deep processing -- chunking in the formation of meaningful associations with material
already in WM to learn the new material
1. generation effect
2. active problem solving and group participation
3. better retained when understanding why rather than what – embedded in the context of the
procedural task to be learned
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Offering Feedback
corrective feedback, motivational feedback
immediately after the skill is performed
Consider Individual Differences
redundancy of graphics and words is most helpful
Pay Attention to Attention
learning is information processing, and information processing is generally resources limited
cognitive load theory
Training in Parts
part-task training is not always superior to whole-task training how the task is broken down
segmentation – several components occurring in sequence without overlapping
fractionation – component tasks performed simultaneously or concurrently
Simplifying, Guiding and Adaptive Training
simplification – reducing load and errors of performance
guiding – “training wheels” approach – disabling or freezing keys
simplified version of a skill will not transfer to the complex version
learners can become overly dependent on the guidance or scaffolding
Media Matters?
modest benefits of computer-based instruction – these gains are not large the particular
aspect of the computer media not the computer itself
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Transfer of Training and Simulation
how well the learning in one environment enhance performance in a new environment
positive/negative transfer
%transfer = (control time – transfer time)/(control time)*100 = savings/(control time)*100
transfer effectiveness ratio = savings/(training time)
realism or fidelity of the simulator – more realism does not necessarily produce more positive
transfer
On the Job Training and Embedded training
much less effective than other training methods – very effective if using Instructional System
Design with strong guidance to the trainer
embedded training is most appropriate for jobs that rely at least partially on computers
TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGN
A Training Program Design Model
ISD (Instructional System Design) models – similar to human factors design models
front-end analysis phase design and development phase implementation final
system evaluation phase
developing job aids, instructional manuals, performance-support systems in addition to more
traditional training programs
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Phase 1: Front-End Analysis
organizational analysis
information-collection activity to identify any factors regarding the need for and
success for a training program – future company change such as job redesign or
acquisition or new technology, management attitude toward job duties
document analysis, interviews, questionnaires, job tests, observation
task analysis
identify the knowledge, skills, and behavior for successful task performance
trainee analysis identifies:
1) prerequisite knowledge and skills to begin the training program
2) demographics such as age, physical capabilities, primary language, and background
3) attitudes toward training methods
training needs analysis -- to determine the most appropriate performance improvement
approach among task redesign, performance support, develop a training program
Phase 2: Design and Development
design concepts (cost/benefit analysis) project plan prototype for formative evaluation
and usability testing full-scale development final usability test
Phase 3: Program Evaluation
what criteria to measure, when to measure the criteria, who (which trainee) to use in
measuring the criteria, what context to use
pretest-posttest experimental design, control group design
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19. Social Factors
GROUPS AND TEAMS
trend in organizational design
flattening structures, decentralized decision making, use of groups and teams
Characteristics of Groups and Teams
organize every function into ten- to thirty-person, largely self-managing teams
team characteristics
the key to group performance – communication
crew – a group of persons or team that manages some of technology usually in transportation
Group Performance
better at tasks than the average but not better than the best
work productivity – less than the sum of the individuals
Team Performance
selection of an appropriate combination of members
four categories
problems interfering with team performance
taskwork skills
teamwork skills – cooperation, coordination, communication, adaptibility, giving/accepting
suggestions or criticism, showing team spirit
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factors to team performance
no common mental model
no time and cognitive resources to communicate plans and strategies
no cognitive resources available to ask others for information
Team Training
acquisition of team work skills
1. development and use of shared mental models
2. strategies for effective communication, adaptation to stress, maintenance of situational
awareness, group decision making, coordinated task performance
job cross-training
Team Instructional Prescriptions (TIP)
COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COOPERATIVE WORK
Decision Making Using Groupware
group communication support system – teleconferencing, e-mail
group decision support system
Effects of Decision Support Systems
increase group members’ depth of analysis, group communication and efforts to achieve
clarification, member participation, the consensus building of group
decrease the domination by a few people
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Effects of Communication Support System
increase the level of participation and effort expended by group members
increase the depth of analysis
decrease domination of the group by a few members
increase decision times
decrease overall cooperation and consensus building
Computer-Supported Team Performance
group-view displays
1. provide a status overview
2. direct personnel to additional information
3. support collaboration among crew members
4. support coordination of crew activities
Difficulties in Remote Collaboration
1. increased difficulty in collaboration – knowing who is doing what
2. increased difficulty in communication
3. increased difficulty in maintaining situation awareness because of a decrease in communication
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MACROERGONOMICS AND INDUSTRIAL INTERVENTION
traditional ergonomics intervention in industry – micoergonomics
macroergonomics
top-down sociotechnical systems approach to the design of organizations, work systems,
jobs, and related human-machine, user-system, and human-environment interfaces
participatory ergonomics
1. employees know a great deal about their job and job environment
2. employee and management ownership enhances program implementation
3. end-user participation causes flexible problem solving
ergonomic interventions -- organizational barriers
promoting employee self-protective behavior
1. use of individual or group incentives
2. use of disciplinary actions
3. fear messages
4. behavior modeling of others
5. employee surveys
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3.
1.
Info. Acquisition, selection, &
filtering (ex. spellchecker)
2.
Info. Integration (ex. Predictor
display
3.
Action selection and choice (Ex.
TACS)
Control and action execution (Ex.
Cruise control)
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Figure 17.1
Representation of the driver’s information-processing tasks. The top of the figure depicts
the tracking or vehicle control tasks involved with lane keeping and hazard avoidance. The
bottom of the figure presents the various sources of competition for resource away from
vehicle tracking. These may be thought of as secondary tasks.
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Figure 17.2
Representation of the PVAL from the forward view, top view, and side view.
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Figure 17.3
The components of the hazard response time, which is the time required to
stop before contacting a hazard, the influences on these components, and the
need to maintain a positive safety margin between the time required and the
time available. Time available will be inversely proportional to speed.
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Figure 17.4
Fatality rate as a function of age and gender. (source: Evans, L., 1988. Older
driver involvement in fatal and severe traffic crashes. Journal of Gerontology:
Social Science, 43(5), 186-193)
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Figure 18.1
Hypothetical relationship between selection test and eventual job performance. The criterion
related validity of the test can be expressed as the correlation between the test score (x axis)
and the measure of job performance (y axis).
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Figure 18.2
Continuum of computer interface training methods.
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Figure 18.3
Advantage of partially redundant combination of pictures and words. Imagine the
difficulty of trying to convey this information entirely with words. (Source: Wright, P.,
1977. Presenting technical information: A survey of research finding. Instructional
Science, 6, 93-134).
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