Transcript 슬라이드 제목 없음

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 WHY AUTOMATE
1.
2.
3.
4.
16. Automation
impossible or hazardous
difficult or unpleasant
extend human capability
technically possible
 STAGES AND LEVELS OF AUTOMATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
information acquisition, selection, and filtering – selective attention --automatic highlighting
information integration – perception and working memory -- predictor displays
action selection and choice – traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)
control and action execution – autopilots, cruise control
 PROBLEMS IN AUTOMATION
 Automation Reliability
 reliable – it does what the human operator expects it to do
 not the reliability per se but the perceived reliability
 why automation may be perceived as unreliable
1. it may be unreliable
2. there may be certain situations in which the automation is not designed to operate or
may not perform well – dumb and dutiful
3. the human operator may incorrectly set up the automation
4. due to poor mental model, it appears to be acting erroneously to the operator
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 Trust: Calibration and Mistrust
 trust should be well calibrated – trust should be in direct proportion to its reliability
 mistrust occurs when trust is not directly related to reliability
 distrust is a type of mistrust where the person fails to trust the automation as much as is
appropriate – are not necessarily severe, but may lead to inefficiency
 Overtrust and Complacency
 overtrust occurs when people trust the automation more than is warranted – severe
negative consequences if the automation is less than fully reliable
 human tendency to let experience guide our expectancies – perceived perfect reliability
 three distinct implications for human intervention to automation
1. detection: the complacent operator will likely be slower to detect a real failure the more
reliable, the rarer the signal, and the poorer their detection
2. situation awareness – better aware with active participation (generation effect) – out of
the loop, poor feedback of the automated process
3. skill loss (deskilling) – the gradual loss of skills
1. less self-confident  more likely to continue to use automation
2. degrade the operator’s ability to intervene approximately (fig 16.1)
 Workload and Situation Awareness
 as automation level moves up the scale, both workload and SA tend to go down
 clumsy automation – automation makes easy tasks easier and hard tasks harder
 Training and Certification
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 Loss of Human Cooperation
 Job Satisfaction
 FUNCTION ALLOCATION BETWEEN THE PERSON AND AUTOMATION
 HUMAN-CENTERED AUTOMATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
keeping the human informed
keeping the human trained
keeping the operator in the loop
selecting appropriate stages and levels when automation is imperfect (fig 16.2)
making the automation flexible and adaptive
maintaining a positive management philosophy
 SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND AUTOMATION-BASED COMPLEX SYSTEM
 automation is not optional, but necessity -- production of continuous quantities (chemical
process control), production of discrete quantities (manufacturing control), robotics control
 how to support the supervisor in times of failures and fault management  knowledgebased behavior, predictor displays, ecological interface
 robotics control in manufacturing and in navigating UAV
 hortatory control – the systems being controlled retains a high degree of autonomy
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17. Transportation Human Factors
 AUTOMOTIVE HUMAN FACTORS
 Task Analysis of the Vehicle Roadway System
Strategic, Tactical, and Control Aspects of Driving
 strategic tasks – deciding where to go, when to go and how to get there
 tactical tasks – choice of maneuvers and immediate goals in getting to a destination such
as speed selection, the decision to pass another vehicle, and the choice of lanes
 control tasks – moment-to-moment operation of the vehicle such as maintaining a desired
speed, keeping the desired distance from the car ahead, keeping the car in the lane
Control Task
 two-dimensional tracking task of vehicle control
 the lateral task of maintaining lane position – 2nd-order control task with preview and
a predictor  the best measure is the time to lane crossing (TLC)
 longitudinal task as a first-order tracking task of speed keeping
 three channels of visual information to be tracked along the two axes
1. lateral tracking by the roadway curvature
2. longitudinal tracking by the flow of motion along the roadway and the location or
distance of hazards and traffic control devices
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Multitask Demands
 primary control task -- lane keeping and roadway hazard monitoring dependent upon
primary vision attention lobe (PVAL) of information (fig 17.1 and 17.2)
 inattention, competing visual tasks
 secondary motor activity – conflict with monitoring and processing and visual information in
the PVAL
Cabin Environment
 create the simplest, most user-friendly design of the internal displays and controls
 Visibility
Anthropometry
 anthropometric factors of seating – reachability of different controls
 design for the mean is not appropriate -- controls accessible and interpretable
Illumination
 adequate highway lightning, adequate reflectors
Signage
1) minimize visual clutter from unnecessary signs
2) locate signs consistently
3) identify sign classes distinctly – color, shape
4) allow signs to be read efficiently
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Resource Competition
 serious distraction of in-cab viewing – the number and duration of glances – feel safe less
than 0.8 sec/glance, 3 sec between glances
 auditory display, speech recognition, HUD
 Hazards and Collisions
Control Loss
 slick or icy road conditions, narrow lanes and momentarily lapses in attention, rapid overcorrection (minor lane departure) – roadway departure because of fatigue
 directly related to the bandwidth of correction – vehicle speed
Hazard Response
 poor visibility and inattention can cause a failure to detect hazards
 the time to react to unexpected objects (the perception-reaction time or brake reaction time)
– 1 to 2 sec, mean of 1.5 sec
Speeding
 quadruple threat to driver safety – (1) increases the likelihood of control loss; (2)
decreases the probability of detecting hazard in time; (3) increases the distance traveled
before a successful avoidance maneuver; (4) increases the damage at impact (fig 17.3)
 why do people speed?
 perceptual biases (underestimating true speed) – size biased distance judgments;
bias to overspeed (quieter engines, higher seating position above the ground, less
visible ground texture), adaptation
 cognitive biases (overestimating the ability to stop in time)
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Risky Behavior
 cognitive biases to overspeeding – overconfidence (underestimation of risk), expectancy (no
experience of a collision – little effect on the behavior of survivors)
 The Impaired Driver
Fatigue
 over 50% of the accidents leading to the death of a truck driver and over 10% of all fatal car
accidents
Alcohol
 the most effective interventions may be social norming
Age
Impairment Interactions
 Driving Safety Improvements
Driver Characteristics: Training and Selection
 higher accident rates were related with limited skills (for the very young driver) and limited
information processing abilities (for the elderly)
 graduated licensing for younger drivers, more frequent driving test
 the standard visual acuity test – very little relevance for driving  dynamic visual acuity
Driver Characteristics: Driver Adaptation and Risk Calibration
 risk homeostasis model – partially consistent  motive for driving faster and force of habit
 any safety intervention must consider the tendency for people to adapt to the new situation
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Driver Characteristics: Regulatory Compliance
 effective enforcement of speed limits can make a difference – automatic speed management
system, automated systems for issuing tickets
Driver and Vehicle Characteristics: Fitness to Drive
 driver monitoring system -- monitoring the vehicle (e.g., steering behavior) and the driver
(e.g., blinking rate, EEG)
Vehicle Characteristics: Sensing and Warnings
 high mounted brake lights, trilight system
Roadway Characteristics: Expectancy
 positive guidance, light cycle
 expectancy and standardization on sign location and interaction design
 reduce the consequence of an accident
Driver and Vehicle Characteristics: Use of Protective Devices
 AUTOMATIVE AUTOMATION
 Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) – collision warning systems, automated navigation
systems, driver monitors – GPS system, traffic sensing devices, digital map database,
wireless connection
1. user trust and complacency
2. attention may be drawn more into the vehicle
3. introduce a new type of productivity and safety tradeoff in driving
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 PUBLIC GROUND TRANSPORTATION
 Maritime Human Factors
 fatigue and crew reductions
 extremely sluggish in their handling qualities, benefiting from predictive displays
 Aviation Human Factors
 The Tasks
 primary multiaxis tracking task -- aviating
 maintaining situation awareness, navigating to three-dimensional points, following
procedures, communicating with controllers and other pilots, monitoring system status
 competition -- visual, perceptual, cognitive, and response-related resources
Tracking and Flight Control
 6 degrees of freedom of motion
 rotational axes -- pitch, roll (or bank), and yaw
 translational axes – lateral, vertical, and longitudinal
 two primary goals
 aviating -- keeping the plane from stalling by maintaining adequate air flow over the
wings, which produces lift  control of the airspeed and attitude (pitch and roll)
 navigate the aircraft to points in the 3-D airspace (4-D navigation with time)
1. yoke controls the elevators and ailerons – pitch and bank (first-order dynamics)
2. throttle controls airspeed
3. rudder pedals help coordinate turning and heading changes
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 three facets make the multielements tracking task much more difficult
1. displays do not show a good, integrated, pictorial representation of the aircraft
2. the dynamics of several aspects of flight control are higher order
3. the axes often have cross-couplings
Maintaining Situation Awareness
 achieving SA through display design -- HUD
Following Procedures
 to assist the pilot’s prospective memory – knowledge in the world in the checklist
 two kinds of errors in following checklists
1. top-down processing (coupled with time pressure) may lead to see the item in its
appropriate state, even if it is not
2. distractions can lead the pilot to skip a step in the checklist
 redundant participation, automation
 The Social Context
 breakdowns in pilot team performance  junior vs. senior  CRM (cockpit/crew resource
management)
 Supporting the Pilot
1. maintenance technicians and their inspection and trouble shooting skills
2. aircraft automation – human-centered automation
3. air traffic control
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18. Selection and Training
 PERSONNEL SELECTION
 predicting future job performance; categorize accepted applicants into the job type
 interviews, work histories, background checks, tests, references, work samples
 signal detection theory  hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection
 Basics of Selection
 job analysis – selection, training, performance appraisal, setting salary levels  tasks,
environments, related knowledge, skills, & abilities
 already have the task-specific knowledge and skills required or show evidence of basic
knowledge and abilities
 criterion-related validity – Fig. 18.1
 Selection Tests and Procedures
Measures of Cognitive Ability
 standardized tests  more valid than any others
 complex jobs (general intelligence – working memory capacity); high complexity (verbal
and numerical ability); low complexity (motor coordination and manual dexterity)
Measures of Physical Ability and Psychomotor Skills
 physical strength, physical endurance, manual dexterity, and/or psychomotor skills
Personality Assessment
 clinical measures – mental illness or behavioral disorders – not appropriate
 personality dimensions – five basic personality factors/clusters
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Work Samples and Job Knowledge
 work sampling – expensive to assess
 video assessment – see a short scenario and respond in the situation
 job knowledge test – high transferable knowledge to the job, motivation factor
Structured Interviews
 questions based on and related to knowledge and skills identified in the job analysis
 describe previous work behavior  critical behavior interview – discuss recent occasions
when they felt they were performing at their best
 PERFORMANCE SUPPORT AND JOB AIDS
 performance-support approach  as needed basis, shifting a ‘learn-and-apply’ to ‘learningwhile-applying’ cycle
 performance support – the process of providing a set of information and learning activities
in a context-specific fashion during task performance  efficient because of less taxing on
memory – Fig. 18.2
Job Aids and Instructions
 job aids - daily to-do list, recipe, note cards, computer templates, instructions for
assembling a product, procedural lists
 traditional instruction manual  Wright’s quidelines -- caution against using prose, effective
use of pictures (redundancy gain), proximity-compatibility principle
 voice coupled with pictures when presenting instructions
Embedded Computer Support
 on-line help system – adaptive automation  interrupting the ongoing task
 when to use performance support, training, or both – table 18.1
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 TRAINING
 Learning and Expertise
 three different stages in the development of expertise (fig. 18.4, 18.5)
1. knowledge about a job or a task characterized by declarative knowledge – not well
organized, fragile
2. with familiarity and practice, procedural knowledge by rules and if-then statements
3. automaticity
 Methods for Enhancing Training
 the best training in the shortest time, to the longest retention, the least expensive
Practice and Overlearning
 overlearning beyond error-free performance
 improving in the speed of performance involving cognitive or motor aspects 
automaticity  important in skills with high multitasking requirements
 decrease the rate of forgetting and increase the ease of a task
Encouraging Deep, Active, and Meaningful Processing
 deep processing -- chunking in the formation of meaningful associations with material
already in WM to learn the new material
1. generation effect
2. active problem solving and group participation
3. better retained when understanding why rather than what – embedded in the context of the
procedural task to be learned
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Offering Feedback
 corrective feedback, motivational feedback
 immediately after the skill is performed
Consider Individual Differences
 redundancy of graphics and words is most helpful
Pay Attention to Attention
 learning is information processing, and information processing is generally resources limited
 cognitive load theory
Training in Parts
 part-task training is not always superior to whole-task training  how the task is broken down
 segmentation – several components occurring in sequence without overlapping
 fractionation – component tasks performed simultaneously or concurrently
Simplifying, Guiding and Adaptive Training
 simplification – reducing load and errors of performance
 guiding – “training wheels” approach – disabling or freezing keys
 simplified version of a skill will not transfer to the complex version
 learners can become overly dependent on the guidance or scaffolding
Media Matters?
 modest benefits of computer-based instruction – these gains are not large  the particular
aspect of the computer media not the computer itself
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 Transfer of Training and Simulation
 how well the learning in one environment enhance performance in a new environment
 positive/negative transfer
 %transfer = (control time – transfer time)/(control time)*100 = savings/(control time)*100
 transfer effectiveness ratio = savings/(training time)
 realism or fidelity of the simulator – more realism does not necessarily produce more positive
transfer
 On the Job Training and Embedded training
 much less effective than other training methods – very effective if using Instructional System
Design with strong guidance to the trainer
 embedded training is most appropriate for jobs that rely at least partially on computers
 TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGN
 A Training Program Design Model
 ISD (Instructional System Design) models – similar to human factors design models
 front-end analysis phase  design and development phase  implementation  final
system evaluation phase
 developing job aids, instructional manuals, performance-support systems in addition to more
traditional training programs
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Phase 1: Front-End Analysis
 organizational analysis
 information-collection activity to identify any factors regarding the need for and
success for a training program – future company change such as job redesign or
acquisition or new technology, management attitude toward job duties
 document analysis, interviews, questionnaires, job tests, observation
 task analysis
 identify the knowledge, skills, and behavior for successful task performance
 trainee analysis identifies:
1) prerequisite knowledge and skills to begin the training program
2) demographics such as age, physical capabilities, primary language, and background
3) attitudes toward training methods
 training needs analysis -- to determine the most appropriate performance improvement
approach among task redesign, performance support, develop a training program
Phase 2: Design and Development
 design concepts (cost/benefit analysis)  project plan  prototype for formative evaluation
and usability testing  full-scale development  final usability test
Phase 3: Program Evaluation
 what criteria to measure, when to measure the criteria, who (which trainee) to use in
measuring the criteria, what context to use
 pretest-posttest experimental design, control group design
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19. Social Factors
 GROUPS AND TEAMS
 trend in organizational design
 flattening structures, decentralized decision making, use of groups and teams
 Characteristics of Groups and Teams
 organize every function into ten- to thirty-person, largely self-managing teams
 team characteristics
 the key to group performance – communication
 crew – a group of persons or team that manages some of technology usually in transportation
 Group Performance
 better at tasks than the average but not better than the best
 work productivity – less than the sum of the individuals
 Team Performance
 selection of an appropriate combination of members
 four categories
 problems interfering with team performance
 taskwork skills
 teamwork skills – cooperation, coordination, communication, adaptibility, giving/accepting
suggestions or criticism, showing team spirit
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 factors to team performance
 no common mental model
 no time and cognitive resources to communicate plans and strategies
 no cognitive resources available to ask others for information
 Team Training
 acquisition of team work skills
1. development and use of shared mental models
2. strategies for effective communication, adaptation to stress, maintenance of situational
awareness, group decision making, coordinated task performance
 job cross-training
 Team Instructional Prescriptions (TIP)
 COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COOPERATIVE WORK
 Decision Making Using Groupware
 group communication support system – teleconferencing, e-mail
 group decision support system
 Effects of Decision Support Systems
 increase group members’ depth of analysis, group communication and efforts to achieve
clarification, member participation, the consensus building of group
 decrease the domination by a few people
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 Effects of Communication Support System
 increase the level of participation and effort expended by group members
 increase the depth of analysis
 decrease domination of the group by a few members
 increase decision times
 decrease overall cooperation and consensus building
 Computer-Supported Team Performance
 group-view displays
1. provide a status overview
2. direct personnel to additional information
3. support collaboration among crew members
4. support coordination of crew activities
 Difficulties in Remote Collaboration
1. increased difficulty in collaboration – knowing who is doing what
2. increased difficulty in communication
3. increased difficulty in maintaining situation awareness because of a decrease in communication
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 MACROERGONOMICS AND INDUSTRIAL INTERVENTION
 traditional ergonomics intervention in industry – micoergonomics
 macroergonomics
 top-down sociotechnical systems approach to the design of organizations, work systems,
jobs, and related human-machine, user-system, and human-environment interfaces
 participatory ergonomics
1. employees know a great deal about their job and job environment
2. employee and management ownership enhances program implementation
3. end-user participation causes flexible problem solving
 ergonomic interventions -- organizational barriers
 promoting employee self-protective behavior
1. use of individual or group incentives
2. use of disciplinary actions
3. fear messages
4. behavior modeling of others
5. employee surveys
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