Transcript LEADING ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE

MGT8033: Leading Organisational
Change
material comes from Cummings & Worley
(2009), Chapter 21:
The Organisation Learning
Intervention
Lecture Overview
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What is organisational learning?
What are the benefits for businesses that engage in
org. learning?
What are mental models and how do they relate to
org. learning?
Focus on the learning processes
Single-loop, double-loop, triple-loop learning
Uncovering mental models
Org. learning – steps in intervention
Organisational Learning (OL) context
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Alvin Toffler suggested … warned of impending upheaval, most
managers still pursue business as usual. Yet, business as
usual is dangerous in an environment that has become, for all
practical purposes, permanently convulsive (in Scott & Jaffe
2010, p.5).
Various OL interventions target org. structures and social
processes (both can limit or enhance knowledge/info. exchange)
This ongoing, collective learning means greater capacity to
gather and share knowledge, problem-solve, and quicker
capacity for action.
Organisational Learning and the benefits for
businesses ...
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Org. Learning is treated here as an intervention
 Aims at helping the organisation to develop and use
knowledge to change/improve itself
 Collective learning features (learning occurs and knowledge is
spread across the organisation). Some believe org. learning is
the aggregate of the individual learning that occurs day-byday
 However, the interest is in how all this individual learning
assists in organisation performance.
Organisational Learning – Key Characteristics
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Structure: which enables and emphasises teamwork, networking and
other processes that encourage info. sharing and greater involvement
Information systems: enabling easy & fast acquisition, processing,
sharing of often complex info. for the purposes of gaining competitive
advantage
HR Practices: designed to enable and reward knowledge
development and skills, and the sharing thereof
Org. Culture: cultures that promote info-sharing, openness and
experimentation (and risking failure which infers learning occurs from
making mistakes)
Leadership: sets examples for members … viz. openness, trust,
reflection - critical to effective learning.
Organisational Learning and the benefits for
businesses ...
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Cummings & Worley argue that individual learning may not
necessarily assist organisational learning. (e.g. the
Examiner may learn how to inspire oncampus students to
participate eagerly in class sessions, but if this info. is not
shared with colleagues, there is no organisational learning).
Conversely, organisations can learn collectively ( ‘the
system’ expects USQ staff will work with ICE, Moodle,
EASE & other software) but some individuals do not.
This reflects that OL stays in the organisation though
members may change (see Cummings & Worley 2009, 541).
Organisational Learning and the benefits for
businesses ...
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The fundamental premise is that collective
learning may be the only enduring source of
competitive advantage
 Ongoing learning gives the organisation greater
ability to gather and share knowledge. In the long
run this can give the entity greater acceptance of
change and greater resilience when things are
uncertain.
 Note how org. performance is implicated (Fig. 21.2
Cummings & Worley 2009, 541)
The notion of mental models
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Mental models = theories in use
 Org. members construct a view of the organisation as
they interact with other work colleagues, and learn how
the organisation functions.
 These views are held by individual members, which
infers there could be some variation.
 These cognitive maps help the person to make sense of
his/her work surroundings, and help to make him/her
more organised or comfortable in the workplace.
 The person’s mental model is (continually) tested and
modified.
The notion of mental models
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Mental models help the person in decision-making, in
work behaviour, and generally carrying out their work.
The problem arises when individual mental models are
errant or out of step with reality.
The above is expected and usual ... indeed Cummings
& Worley (2009, p. 544) argue that most learning in
organisations is ineffective.
This ineffective learning is Model I Learning (a set of
defensive norms that can impede learning, e.g.
competition and rivalry).
The notion of mental models
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Model I Learning limits the flow of information between and
among org. members. That is, true organisational learning
will not happen in this scenario
 Mental models/assumptions in the above scenario are not
tested
 Cummings & Worley (2009, p544 +) overview interventions
that help organisation members change from Model 1
learning to Model II Learning
 Model II Learning is based on values including free &
informed choice, and is reflected in less obstructive
behaviours, openness to feedback and collaboration
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2EIx
9rBy78&feature=related
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Short clip on mental models – an explanation
Organisational learning processes
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Organisation Learning Processes: 4 interrelated learning
activities. These activities have a logical order, viz.
 Discovery
 Invention
 Production
 Generalisation
Discovery refers to the realisation that a gap or error exists
somewhere. In a business or family situation this might
mean the discovery that no-one is attending to important
maintenance (e.g. Lawnmower or important software)
Organisational learning processes
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Invention is when steps are taken to reduce the gap or
error. In our scenario, this could mean allocating
responsibility for maintenance (e.g. of the lawnmower) to
a family member.
Production refers to the operation of the above remedy.
This might include setting out monthly checks on oil
levels, regular removal and cleaning of the air filter etc.
Generalisation includes making conclusions about the
remedy and extending that knowledge to other relevant
situations (e.g similar maintenance checks are also
necessary for other household and garden appliances)
Single-loop, double-loop, triple-loop learning
Single –loop learning
 ...or adaptive learning is associated with Model
I Learning.
 It is the usual form of learning in an
organisation (finding & correcting errors in
policy, practice and behaviour). As noted
earlier, Model I Learning is when existing
theories in use (mental models) are reinforced.
 Learning occurs, but mostly in increments or
gradual improvements
 Doesn’t change the status quo
Single-loop, double-loop, triple-loop learning
Double-loop learning
 Also known as generative learning and associated with
Model II Learning.
 It is really a re-examination of the way things are being
done and why.
 Challenges and changes the prevailing assumptions
(mental models) of org. members and therefore changes
the status quo.
 This type of learning is more likely to deliver substantial
(radical or transformational) change. e.g. All examiners
allocate marks to the correct encoding of e-assignment files and the
practice becomes faculty or USQ policy. Turnitin and other software
mandated by the USQ similarly place the onus on the student to
guarantee the integrity of their work
Single-loop, double-loop, triple-loop learning
Triple-loop learning
 Perhaps the more difficult to understand (and
achieve in an organisation)
 Also known as deuterolearning – learning how to
learn (something we do very poorly in schools)
 The learning is aimed at the learning process itself,
including both single-loop & double-loop learning.
In the USQ context, an example to illustrate might
be a major review of the promotion of research
activities. Are these research activities and
subsequent outcomes enabling learning
throughout the USQ?
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nn3N
qvStekY
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Neat summary of single, double and triple-loop learning
Methods for uncovering individual mental
models
i. Dialogue Approach
 The aim is to uncover mental models which influence the
person’s behaviour and organising work activities
 Org. members disclose via discussion how they go about
decision-making, problem-solving etc.
 The dialogue aims to identify some of the main behaviour
influences, and to surface any faulty assumptions that might
impede individual, group and/or organisation performance.
 Ways of thinking and acting are the main targets. Honesty
in responses is required
Methods for uncovering individual mental models
ii. Action Map
 Members are asked about recurrent problems in
their organisation, why they occur, what actions
are taken to remedy them, and the outcomes of
these remedial actions.
 Methodology is different: the objective is same uncover the values that underpin behaviour.
 With the above information, the idea is then to
get the person to assess whether their existing
values, beliefs, and assumptions might be
impeding learning and performance.
Methods for uncovering individual mental models
iii. Left-hand, right-hand column
 The person selects a work situation where interaction with
others produced an undesirable or ineffective outcome. The
script (story line) is written on the right of a page. On the left
side, the person enters what he/she was really thinking but
not saying at each point.
 The effectiveness of this approach is dependent on the
person seeing and understanding how their (hidden)
assumptions/theories in use, can influence their behaviour
and decision-making (e.g. the making of faulty decisions).
Methods for uncovering individual mental models
iv. Ladder of Inference (see Cummings & Worley 2009 p. 546
for diagrammatic view)
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Shows normal progression from initial observation to
eventual action as a result of that observation.
Can be used to help the person to see and understand
reasons behind their actions, and encourage review
(and revision of theories in use).
Shows how conclusions drawn from limited
observation and experience can produce poor
outcomes.
3 steps in the organisational learning intervention ...
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The information is provided in Cummings &
Worley 2009 p. 544+
 The method reflects the 4 activities inherent in the
Organisation Learning Processes, as identified
earlier in this lecture (discovery-inventionproduction-generalisation).
 Discovery refers to the uncovering of theories in
use/mental models. There are practical ways of
going about this task (e.g. inquire about how
members problem-solve and make decisions).
 Other methods are described (including use of an
action map, the left-hand, right-hand column
approach, and the ladder of inference) See
previous slide
3 steps in the organisational learning intervention ...
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Invention & production involve members seeing the
limitations of their pre-existing theories in use (mental
models)
This can be confronting and difficult for some, especially
those who feel their successes are tied to their assumptions
Consultants assist members in developing new mental
models. For example, your work unit is not limited by poor middle
management, but rather there are budget constraints (justifiable)
imposed from higher management, which limit options.
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Note: valid information is central to this methodology.
3 steps in the organisational learning intervention ...
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It’s important to encourage members to divulge info.
about their habitual behaviours and decision-making
and how this might impede the creation of new
mental models/theories in use.
The point is made that open discussion about
learning methods and behaviours often results in
acceptance that they can indeed be changed.
You might give some thought to the types of
workplaces in your experience, where this type of
approach would likely be i. accepted and ii. resisted.
3 steps in the organisational learning intervention ...
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Note Cummings & Worley’s (2009, p. 547) reference to systems
thinking. True org. learning is unlikely unless members see/understand
how the work operation functions.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OhbhaN3IGP4&feature=r
elated
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Indeed, deficiencies here can fuel less-than effective decision-making,
as decisions are made without thought of downstream impacts.
But the person is also encouraged to see how he/she is part of the
system (we typically see ourselves as separate from workplace
problems/issues) and therefore sometimes part of the problem.
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3 steps in the organisational learning intervention ...
Monitoring and improving learning equates to the 4th
action – generalising and revising how learning
occurs
 As Cummings & Worley (2009, p. 547) indicate,
organisational structures and processes can impede
or enable organisational learning, and remedial work
may be required here
 Learning at this point is applied to other
organisational contexts or situations, and trialling and
fine-tuning would be expected. Openness and
honesty about new learning should be encouraged.
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How effective is your learning?
1.
Which item from the below set best describes
‘mental models’ as it is used in relation to org.
learning?
(a)
Persons who choose modelling careers but they are not very
bright/intelligent
Types of workplace strategies designed to bring about real
learning
The files that org. members carry around in their heads which
enable them to make sense of how things operate
A type of forecasting used by industrial psychologists to
anticipate members’ reaction to substantial org. change
(b)
(c)
(d)
How effective is your learning?
2. Organisation learning lives on within the organisation
even when members leave, mainly because …
(a) Members cannot learn outside the organisation
(b) Learning becomes second nature or embedded in
the organisation’s systems and structures
(c) Members are not allowed to take the learning with
them when they exit
(d) Learning is like a parasite – it doesn’t leave the host
How effective is your learning?
3. The most usual type of learning in an organisation is
which of the below?
(a) How to avoid work
(b) unlearning
(c) Learning how to learn
(d) Single-loop or adaptive learning
How effective is your learning?
4. Learning processes are described and summarised
by Cumming & Worley (2009). One of the 4 items does
not belong in the set.
(a) Institutionalisation
(b) Invention
(c) Discovery
(d) Generalisation
How effective is your learning?
5. In many organisations, norms and values have the
effect of standardising procedures, providing order and
control, and also reinforcing defensive behaviours.
Which type of learning is described here?
(a) Rote learning
(b) Single-loop or adaptive learning
(c) Double-loop or generative learning
(d) Triple-loop or deuterolearning