Transcript Slide 1

Chapter 11
Motivation and Emotion
1. What are motives and
motivation?
• Motives are reasons or purposes for
behavior.
• Motivation includes influences that guide
the starting, directing, and persistence of
behavior as well as its intensity.
2A. How are intervening variables
helpful in explaining behavior?
• an intervening variable cannot be observed
directly.
• it helps to account for relationship between
stimuli (signals, objects, and events, people).
and responses.
• IV's are used to explain why the same stimuli
may result in different responses at different
times.
2B. How are intervening variables
helpful in explaining behavior?
• Motivation is an example of an intervening
variable and helps explain why behavior
changes over time.
• For example, why unhealthy lifestyles
don't change until a crisis develops
3A. What are 4 sources of
motivation?
• (a)biological - need for food, water, air,
sex, oxygen, temperature control and
regulation.
• (b) emotional - panic, anger, joy, love, and
other emotions.
3B. What are 4 sources of
motivation?
• (c) cognitive - behavior influenced by what
we think is possible and how we expect
others to respond.
• (d) social - effects of other people and
cultural factors
4A. What are 4 theories to explain
motivation?
• (a)
instinct - automatic, involuntary reflex
behavior.
• Released by certain stimuli.
• Includes fixed action patterns.
• (b) drive reduction - based on the idea of
homeostasis or maintaining a balance and
equilibrium of body systems.
• Imbalance results in need or biological
requirement for well-being.
• Need results in drive or state of
arousal prompting action to meet the need or
reduce the drive.
• Primary drives are usually biologically-based.
• Secondary drives are usually learned.
4B. What are 4 theories to explain
motivation?
• (c) arousal - general level of activation in body
systems such as heart, other muscles, and
brain is increased
• by biological drives such as hunger or thirst,
• loud or bright stimuli,
• surprising events
• or stimulant drugs.
• People are motivated by optimal arousal
(increase if too low and decrease if too high).
• (d) incentive - emphasizes external
sources of motivation such as gaining
positive outcomes and avoiding negative
ones controlled by external sources.
5. What is the difference between
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
• Intrinsic motivation - desire to work hard
and do well for internal satisfaction.
• Working for satisfaction of the process
itself.
• Extrinsic motivation - desire to receive
external rewards such as money or grades
• and avoid negative outcomes such as
punishment.
6. What is need for
achievement?
• Specific motive to master tasks and do
them well.
• Mastery seems to result in intense
satisfaction.
7A. What evidence is there for individual
differences in achievement motivation?
• People with high need for achievement establish
challenging, difficult and realistic goals.
• They pursue success and willing to take risks to
succeed.
• They are satisfied is they succeed and are not bothered
by failure.
• They emphasize performance and level of ability.
• They desire feedback and often prefer to struggle rather
than ask for help.
7B. What evidence is there for individual
differences in achievement motivation?
• People with low need for achievement
prefer success.
• They experience relief at not failing rather
than joy in achieving.
• They do not seek or desire feedback
• They respond to failure by quitting.
8A. How does achievement motivation
develop?
• Learned in early childhood, usually from parents.
• Parenting strategies can result in high
achievement if parents
– (a) encourage children to attempt difficult and
reachable goals,
– (b) offer praise for success,
– (c) encourage finding ways to succeed
– (d) prompt children to go on to the next
challenge.
8B. How does achievement motivation
develop?
• Cultural influences – written material (print and electronic
media); events and themes in stories;
• Heroes and heroines may work hard and overcome
obstacles rather than loaf or try to win the lottery.
• Influences after childhood - effects of developing
fantasies about success in college;
• Imagine difficult and achievable goals; effects of
encouraging a long-term perspective.
9A. How do males and females differ in
achievement motivation?
• Women who have high achievement motivation
act in more varied ways than do men who have
high achievement motivation.
• Some women don’t establish challenging goals
and give up when they experience failure.
• Gender differences appear at an early age.
• Explanation associated with how boys and
girls think of themselves.
• Girls are more likely than boys to attribute
failure to lack of ability.
9B. How do males and females differ in
achievement motivation?
• Gender differences seem to be influenced by
how adults respond to the child's failure or
success.
• Suggestion to think failure is due to lack of effort
or some situational factor, results in developing
challenging goals and will persist more often
when experiencing failure.
• Gender role stereotypes are maintained by
the prevailing culture.
• For example, high-achieving women may
be portrayed as unfeminine and
threatening.
10A. How are jobs and motivation
related?
• Employers may be more interested in whether
employees are motivated to do well on the job
than in employees’ general level of achievement
motivation.
• Managers often structure jobs in a way to show
how they think employees are motivated.
• Managers who believe employees are lazy and
untrustworthy may design jobs to be very
structured and heavily supervised.
• Poor motivation among workers often results
from little or no control over the work
environment.
10B. How are jobs and motivation
related?
• High motivation with more satisfaction and
higher productivity tend to result if managers
– (a) encourage workers to participate in
decision making,
– (b) give employees problems to solve without
solving them for the employees,
– (c) teach workers more than one skill,
Higher motivation and
productivity if…
– (d) give individual responsibility,
– (e) give public recognition, not just money as
rewards,
– (f) allow workers to set and achieve clear
goals.
10C. How are jobs and motivation
related?
• Three characteristics of effective worker goals:
• (a) specific and concrete;
• (b) personally meaningful;
• (c) management supports goal setting, rewards
goal achievement, and gives encouragement
after failure.
11A. How does Maslow's motivational
hierarchy explain which motives guide a
person's behavior?
• Proposed 5 basic classes of need or motives
arranged in a hierarchy.
• (a)biological - food, water, air, activity, and
sleep;
• (b)safety - security and being safe and cared for;
• (c) belongingness and love - being part of a
social group and giving and receiving affection;
Maslow’s motivation hierarchy…
• (d) esteem - being respected as a useful
and honorable person;
• (e) self-actualization - developing your
personal potential and being the "best that
you can be;" In general, more basic needs
are satisfied first.
11B. How does Maslow's motivational
hierarchy explain which motives guide a
person's behavior?
• Theory may be too simplistic.
• For example, some people will starve
themselves in order to achieve a higher
level goal.
12A. How are motivational conflicts
associated with stress?
• In general, conflict among motives can be
source of distress and discomfort.
• Four types of conflict:
• (a) approach-approach - choosing between two
desirable goals;
• (b) approach-avoidance – when one activity has
both positive and negative features;
Motivational conflict…
• (c) avoidance-avoidance - choosing
between two undesirable events or
outcomes;
• (d)multiple approach-avoidance - when
you are faced with 2 or more alternatives
or outcomes, each of which having both
pleasant and unpleasant characteristics.
• Last type is most difficult to resolve
because of attributes of each options are
difficult to compare.
12B. How are motivational conflicts
associated with stress?
• Conflict is often associated with anxiety
and other strong emotional states.
• Emotions can be very motivating.
• We often act in ways to gain happiness
and pleasure as well as to avoid anxiety,
anger, or sadness.
13A. What are aspects of defining and
describing emotion?
• A) experiences rather than overt behaviors or
specific thoughts;
• result is often mixed and contradictory; difficult to
assign labels.
• B)have value or valence in the sense of positive
or negative experience;
• can change motivation.
• C) passions not actions;
• happen to a person or take them by surprise;
• not something you decide to experience.
13B. What are aspects of defining and
describing emotion?
• D) influenced by interpretation; emotions develop as a
part of a situation;
• triggered by thinking self and experienced as happening
to the self;
• E) accompanied by physical or bodily response;
• partly reflex and partly learned;
• internal or visceral responses are reflexive;
•
•
•
•
F) vary in intensity
from quiet to furious;
from mild to strong;
importance shown in people who show low
emotional intensity and who don’t get
upset or experience much emotional
pleasure.
14A. What are aspects of how emotion is
related to the autonomic nervous system?
• autonomic nervous system is part of the
peripheral nervous system carries information
between the brain and organs and muscles, with
the exception of the striated muscles;
• modulates changes in ongoing activities of
organs, both exciting and relaxing;
• coordinates organ functioning to meet needs of
whole organism and prepares the body to
respond;
14B. What are aspects of how emotion is
related to the autonomic nervous system?
• two divisions of the ANS are the sympathetic
and parasympathetic;
• sympathetic prepares vigorous activity and
produces increased heart rate and blood
pressure, rapid or irregular breathing, dilated
pupils, perspiration, dry mouth, increased blood
sugar, goose bumps, trembling;
• parasympathetic system influences
protection, nourishment, and growth;
• increases digestive activity and movement
in the intestinal tract.
• contributes to relaxation and growth
15A. What are aspects of how lie detectors or
polygraph machines detect lying?
• polygraph consists of instruments that
record several types of physiological activity;
• to detect lying, record physiological activity
controlled by the sympathetic nervous system,
including heart rate, respiration, and skin
resistance;
• based on idea that emotional responses
accompany lying, such as feeling guilty and
fearing exposure;
15B. What are aspects of how lie detectors or
polygraph machines detect lying?
• ask relevant and control questions;
• expect stronger emotional response to
relevant questions;
• no evidence that polygraph responses
predict behavior;
• accurate, reliable results are hard to get.
16A. How does the James-Lange theory
explain emotion?
• Based on idea we feel emotions because of
specific physiological responses.
• For example, we feel afraid because we run.
• Sequence of events: perception of stimulus
affects cerebral cortex, reflex response in
muscle, skin, viscera/smooth muscles,
conscious experience of emotion.
16B. How does the James-Lange theory
explain emotion?
• Belief that reflexive physical response precedes
emotional experience.
• Conscious experience comes later.
• May be one reason why we have difficulty
knowing true feelings.
• We may interpret feelings from physical
responses
17A. How does the Cannon-Bard theory
explain emotion?
• Experience of emotion originates in brain/CNS.
• Subconscious experience in the brain results in
simultaneous stimulation of ANS and the
cerebral (conscious) cortex.
• Interpretation of emotion results from signals
from inside the brain.
17B. How does the Cannon-Bard theory
explain emotion?
• Evidence for C-B theory: emotion occurs by
activating specific parts of the CNS;
• different parts of the CNS may be activated for
different emotions (pain and pleasure centers)
and different aspects of total emotional
experience.
18A. How does the Schachter-Singer
theory explain emotion?
• Related to idea of how interpretation affects
emotional experience.
• Reflects a combination of James-Lange and
Cannon-Bard.
• Agrees with J-L that emotional experience
results from perceiving physiological response
feedback.
• Agrees with C-B that physiological response
alone is not different enough to reflect subtle
emotional experience.
18B. How does the Schachter-Singer
theory explain emotion?
• Proposes that emotions result from both
physiological response feedback and cognitive
appraisal.
• Cognitive interpretation has two influences:
• (a) perception of stimulus and
• (b) identification of ANS response.
19A. What is transfer of excitation?
• Physiological arousal can be attributed to
emotion and can intensify emotional experience
regardless of arousal source.
• Transferred excitation: when arousal from
experience carries over to another independent
or unrelated situation.
• Based on idea that we remain aroused longer
than we think (increased blood pressure and
respiration at subconscious level).
• Transfer occurs when overt arousal symptoms
have subsided and sympathetic nervous system
is still active.
19B. What is transfer of excitation?
• Example: if activated by exercise and feel calm,
is easy to attribute arousal to emotion such as
attraction.
• Transfer especially likely when excitement from
a non-emotional source is similar to arousal
associated with a particular emotion.
• Arousal from one emotion then intensifies the
second emotion.
• For example, arousal from fear or anger can
enhance sexual feelings.
20A. What conclusions can be made concerning the
relationship between emotion and autonomic nervous
system responses?
• Both physical or ANS response and cognitive
interpretation of responses influence emotional
experience.
• There seems to be direct experience of emotion
in the CNS, aside from ANS arousal.
• Emotion is likely in both heart (ANS) and head
(cerebral cortex or CNS).
20B. What conclusions can be made concerning the
relationship between emotion and autonomic nervous
system responses?
• No resolution of which emotional
component, if either is primary or more
important.
21A. What are aspects of how we
communicate emotion?
• Innate expression of emotion refers to idea that
how we express emotion is influenced by
heredity.
• Darwin believed facial expressions to be
universal and biologically determined.
• Two types of evidence support Darwin’s ideas:
• (a) from infants who show unlearned facial
expression of emotion, including blind babies
and those with normal vision.
• (b) for basic emotions, people of all cultures
show similar facial responses to similar
emotional stimuli.
21B. What are aspects of how we
communicate emotion?
• Communicative value of emotional expressions
depends on context;
• Social referencing refers to uncertain situations
in which other individuals provide a reference or
guide that decreases uncertainty as how to
respond.
• Infants depend on adults emotional
expressions, such as in the “visual cliff”.
21C. What are aspects of how we
communicate emotion?
• Communication through emotional facial
expression may explain why some behaviors are
considered biologically "wired-in" such as in
babies' fear of strangers.
• Emotional culture includes rules governing
which emotional are acceptable in which
situations and which emotions expressions are
not acceptable.
• These classifications vary from culture to
culture, across time in a single culture, and
within an individuals lifetime.
22A. What are explanations of how we
express emotion?
• Relationship between the brain hemispheres
may be important in suppressing emotion.
• Communication between brain hemispheres
may influence this ability.
• Evidence from infants: infants do not inhibit
emotional expression and also have less welldeveloped functional connections between the
hemispheres.
• Until age 19 or 20, corpus callosum is not
fully myelinated or covered with fatty
sheath that speeds neural activity.
• Differences in hemispheric communication
may be partly responsible for differences
in ability to suppress emotional
expression.
22B. What are explanations of how we
express emotion?
• Possibly suppression of negative emotion related to
stopping communication between right hemisphere
where negative emotions are generated and verbal
areas in left hemisphere.
• People who suppress emotion ANS response may
experience disconnection from ability to report emotions.
• The ANS activity increases but the person reports little or
no emotion.
23A. How are psychological disorders
related to the emotion of fear?
• Panic Disorder = experience of intense fear in
situation where there is nothing to be afraid of.
• 3 components:
• (a) panic attack - physical symptoms, including
heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, body
temperature.
• (b) chronic anxiety about whether an attack will
occur; involves emotions and thoughts.
• (c) avoidance behaviors aimed at preventing
future attacks.
23B. How are psychological disorders
related to the emotion of fear?
• Proposal: panic disorder patients have hypersensitive brainstem mechanisms regulating ANS
response contributing to fear;
• other information from PETT scans: before panic
attacks, increased abnormal symmetry of blood
flow (more to right hemisphere);
• during panic attack, brain activity similar to that
of people with anxiety anticipating painful
experience.
• Appearance of unexplained physiological
arousal may set the stage for panic.
23C. How are psychological disorders
related to the emotion of fear?
• Cognitive interpretation of symptoms can
determine whether an attack develops.
• Research shows that people who experience the
illusion of control are less likely to experience full
panic attack.
• Conclusion: process of interpreting and coping
with symptoms gives cognitive
aspects important role in controlling panic
disorders.
Chapter 13
• Health, Stress and Coping
1A. What is stress?
• Definition - process of adjusting to or dealing
with situations that disrupt or threaten your
physical or psychological well-being and
functioning.
• In general, involves relationships between
people and the environment.
• Specifically involves relationship between
stressors, stress responses, and
mediating factors.
Stress components…
• Stressors = events or situations that we
respond or react to.
• Stress responses = physical,
psychological, and behavioral responses
to stressors.
• Mediating factors = circumstances and
personal characteristics;
• specifically, predictability, control, social
support, and coping strategies.
2A. What are 6 major psychosocial
stressors and examples of each?
• (a)frustration - obstacle standing between you
and your goals;
• being unable to earn a decent living, failing to
establish a close and loving relationship.
• (b)pressure - require you to do too much
in too little time;
• preparing a dinner for 20 on one day's
notice;
• writing 2 complete essay question
responses in 10 minutes.
• (c)boredom or under-stimulation opposite of pressure;
• lecture or activity not interesting to you
• solitary confinement;
• guard duty in a remote location;
• lack of interest in what is going on around
you.
2B. What are 6 major psychosocial
stressors and examples of each?
• (d)
trauma - shocking physical or psychological
or emotional experience; examples - rape,
military combat, severe storm, fire, torture.
• (e) conflict - having to make a choice
between
• two attractive options,
• two unattractive options,
• one attractive and one unattractive option
• several options each with both attractive
and unattractive characteristics,
• (f)change –
• examples : divorce, unemployment, and
illness.
3. How is stress commonly measured?
• Related to number of life changes we have
experienced.
• Based on assumption that any and all
change (both positive and negative) can be
stressful and distressing.
• People are asked to rate a list of change-related
stressors in terms of life-change units (amount of
change and demand for adjustment a stressor
introduces).
4. What is the general adaptation
syndrome?
• G.A.S. = a sequence of physical responses
triggered in response to any stressor.
• Has three stages:
• --(a)alarm reaction - some version of the
flight or fight syndrome.
• Example - may be change in heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration, or body temperature.
• --(b)resistance - body settles in to resist
the stressor on a long-term basis.
• Slower drain on body resources than
alarm reaction.
• Body still working very hard to produce
emergency energy.
• Uses up body's reserves of adaptive
energy.
• --(c) Exhaustion - body no longer able
to resist the stressor(s).
• Associated with signs of physical wear and
tear.
• Can result in illness such as heart disease,
high blood pressure, arthritis, colds, flu.
• May end in death.
5A. What are 2 psychological stress
responses?
• (a) emotional - may be anxiety, anger,
aggression;
• --usually occurs in response to identifiable
situations;
• --usually subsides when stressors removed;
• --may be associated with generalized anxiety
if constant emotional arousal becomes routine.
• (b) cognitive - decreased ability to concentrate,
think clearly, remember accurately;
• --For example, catastrophizing or dwelling on
and overemphasizing the potential negative
consequences of unpleasant events;
• --interfering with thinking and may intensify
emotional and physical responses.
5B. What are 2 psychological stress
responses?
• Defense mechanisms –
• --denial or saying to yourself that it's not
happening;
• --repression/forgetting;
• --rationalization or finding a reason;
Defense mechanisms…
• --intellectualization or emotional
detachment;
• --displacement or finding a safe target to
express emotion;
• --projection or attributing one's own
undesirable qualities to another person.
6. What are behavioral stress responses?
• changes in how people look, act, or talk in
response to stressors;
• examples: facial expressions, voice tone,
trembling, jumpiness, posture;
• observable responses that allow us to express
and communicate how we are feeling and
thinking.
7. How do predictability and control
influence the experience of stress?
• predictable stressors have lower impact,
especially if they don’t last very long.
• Controlled stressors have lower impact than
uncontrolled stressors;
• Believing you have little or no control may
increase the unpleasant impact of stressors.
8A. How do social support and coping skills
influence the experience of stress?
• (a)social support - resources provided by other
people, friends, and social contacts;
• --can take different forms, including giving
assistance and buffering impact;
• --helps us to feel less anxious and more in
control;
• --ability to cope sometimes influences quality
of social support received; too much support can
be as bad as too little;
8B. How do social support and coping
skills influence the experience of stress?
• (b) coping skills represent ability to solve
problems and deal with stressors;
• 3 categories
• --(1)appraisal-focused in which we think
about stressors as challenges rather than
threats;
• ----planning what to do;
• --(2) problem-focused in which we
change or eliminate the stressor by
seeking help or using planning strategies;
• ----use in situations you can change or
have an effect;
• --(3) emotion-focused in which we
control negative emotions by using calm
thoughts or emotional detachment;
• ----does nothing to solve the problem(s);
use in situations you can't change
immediately.
9A. How is stress related to physical
illness?
• Early research has identified various diseases
associated with excessive arousal of the
sympathetic nervous system.
• Examples include asthma, high blood pressure,
ulcers, migraine headaches.
• Recent research has established a
connection between stress and any
physical illness.
• --Example is Alzheimer's Disease,
associated with severe memory loss;
• --too much stress may result in
premature death of brain cells in areas of
brain responsible for memory.
9B. How is stress related to physical
illness?
• Stress also associated with coronary heart
disease.
• Type A behavior (intensely competitive,
aggressive, impatient, hostile, nonstop worker;
• need to control events and the environment.)
• Stress also associated with cancer risk.
10A. What are steps in developing a plan
to cope with stress?
• (a)systematic assessment of the problem –
• -- identify the source of the stress;
• --list events and situations containing conflict
and change.
• --note physical and psychological effects of
stress, including headache, lack of
concentration, excessive substance use.
• (b) select appropriate goals –
• --decide whether to eliminate stressors
or change your response to them;
• (c)planning –
• --list specific steps of actions to take.
10B. What are steps in
developing a plan to cope with
stress?
• (d) action –
• --put plans into action, using stress coping
strategies.
• (e) evaluation –
• --determine changes resulting from
stress-coping methods and decide what
worked and what didn't-t.
• (f) adjustment –
• --change coping methods and strategies
to improve results if necessary.
11A. What are 3 type of stress coping
strategies and examples of each type?
• (a) cognitive strategies –
• --changing how you interpret stressors;
• --help people think more calmly, rationally and
constructively under stress;
• --cognitive restructuring or substituting more
effective thought patterns for catastrophic
thinking;
• --results in lower threat and disruption
potential of stressors.
11B. What are 3 type of stress coping
strategies and examples of each type?
• (b) behavioral –
• --rearranging the environment to minimize
impact of stressors;
• --one example is more effective time
management;
• --keep track of how you use your time for a
week.
• --start a time management plan;
• --shows you relative amounts of free
time and planned time;
• --can help control catastrophic thinking;
• --gives visual reassurance;
• --another example is paying attention to
total stressor load and acting to restrict it
by using a rational coping plan rather than
impulsive decision making.
11C. What are 3 type of stress coping
strategies and examples of each type?
• (c) physical strategies –
• --directly change physiological responses
before, during, or after encountering stressor(s);
• --Can be chemical or nonchemical.
• ----Chemical strategies may involve prescribed
or nonprescribed substances;
• ----
• appropriate in some cases;
• ----may provide temporary relief;
• ----long-term use can lead to other
problems such as addiction, family or
marital difficulties;
• ----can result in attributing coping ability
to the drug or substance and not your own
skills and abilities.
D11. What are 3 type of stress coping
strategies and examples of each type?
•
•
•
•
Non-chemical coping includes
progressive muscles relaxation,
physical exercise,
and biofeedback.
CHAPTER 14
PERSONALITY
1A. WHAT IS PERSONALITY AND HOW
CAN WE STUDY IT?
• *lasting
pattern of psychological and behavioral
characteristics used to compare and contrast
one person with another.
• *three methods to study personality:
• --a. observation - watching the behavior
of individuals
• -- b. interview - series of questions
about how you think, feel, and act;
• ----may refer to past, present, or future;
can be changed to fit special needs of
individuals.
• ----may use open-ended or closedended questions
1B. WHAT IS PERSONALITY AND HOW
CAN WE STUDY IT?
• --c. tests - standardized and economical;
• ----should meet standards of reliability and
validity;
• ----objective/written and contains
specific questions with predetermined
response choices;
• examples: MBTI, 16PF, MMPI
• ----projective/more unstructured;
• ----wide range of interpretations and
responses;
• scoring may be more unreliable than for
objective tests.
• examples: Rorschach, TAT
2A. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC
APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• psychic determinism - personality depends
more on emotional and cognitive factors than
biological factors or external events;
• people usually aren't aware of why they think,
act, or feel in certain ways;
• personality is mostly unconsciously controlled.
2B. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• methods –
• free association=saying whatever comes to your mind;
reveals unconscious material.
•
psychoanalysis=general name for Freud's theory of
personality, research methods and therapy techniques.
2C. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• *structure
of personality –
• 3 major components;
• ID=all basic drives, needs, impulses, motives;
seeks
• immediate satisfaction of needs and wants;
• operates on the pleasure principle;
• EGO=develops from id;
• as we learn to cope with reality;
• responsible for organizing strategies to
get what we want;
• operates according to the reality principle
(compromises between demands of id and
restrictions of the outside world;
• SUPEREGO=develops as we learn and
adopt rules of the external world;
• ego ideal: pressure to conform to
standards of ideal behavior;
• includes conscience (shoulds and should
nots;
• operates according to the morality
principle (knowing the difference between
right and wrong).
2D. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• conflicts and defenses - conflict results from
interaction among id, ego, and superego;
• most of what is unconscious is frightening or
socially unacceptable so we try to avoid
awareness of it;
• we experience anxiety or fear when unconscious
material threatens to become conscious;
2E. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC
APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• anxiety may be unhealthy:
• feeling afraid when there is actually
nothing to fear or
• Anxiety may be moral:
• experienced when feel guilty about
behavior forbidden by the superego;
2E. WHAT IS THE PSYCHODYNAMIC
APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• ego resolves conflicts in several ways:
• including realistic actions
• or defense mechanisms
3. HOW DOES THE INTERPERSONAL CIRCLE RELATE TO
STUDYING AND DESCRIBING PERSONALITY?
• consists of 2 main dimensions concerning how
we act with other people;
• power: dominance vs. submission;
• affiliation: love vs. hate;
• all behavior is a result of some
combination of high or low power and
high or low affiliation;
• predicts mild and extreme versions of
different types of behavior;
3B. HOW DOES THE INTERPERSONAL CIRCLE RELATE TO
STUDYING AND DESCRIBING PERSONALITY?
• results in 8 styles of behavior:
• managerial/autocratic vs selfeffacing/masochistic,
• responsible/hypernomal vs rebellious/distrustful,
• cooperative/overconventional vs
aggressive/sadistic,
• docile/dependent vs
competitive/narcissistic;
• operates according to the rule of
COMPLEMENTARITY: people encourage
behavior in others, compatible to the behavior
offered
• dominant behavior encourages submissive
behavior;
• hate encourages hate, while love encourages
love.
4. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL
APPROACH TO STUDYING
PERSONALITY?
• based on descriptive categories or
labels for personality;
• may refer to types, traits, factors or
needs;
• 3 assumptions:
• 1)everyone has stable
disposition/tendency to think, act, feel in
certain ways;
• 2) dispositions appear in different
situations and explain why people act
predictably in certain situations;
• 3) each person has a different set of
dispositions of varying strengths.
4. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH TO STUDYING
PERSONALITY?
• types - category or group;
• applies in all situations;
• for example shy vs outgoing, feeling vs thinking
• traits - characteristics you possess in certain
amounts or strengths
4A. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH TO STUDYING
PERSONALITY?
• factors - collections/groups of traits;
• psychoticism: cruelty, coldness, hostility,
oddness, rejects social customs;
• extraversion: social, outgoing, likes parties,
takes risks, likes excitement;
• introversion: quiet, thoughtful, reserved,
prefers to be alone, avoids excitement;
•
• emotional stability: calm, even-tempered,
relaxed; emotional instability: moody,
restless, easily worried or anxious;
4A. WHAT IS THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH
TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?
•
•
•
•
•
openness:
active imagination,
sensitive to sights and sounds,
intellectually curious,
receptive to different experiences
•
•
•
•
•
•
openness…
contrasts with being conventional,
down to earth,
narrow interests,
non-artistic,
uncreative;
•
•
•
•
•
•
conscientiousness:
persistent in accomplishing valued tasks,
reliable,
dependable vs lax,
aimless,
unreliable.
5A. WHAT IS THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• personality is made up of behavior
patterns;
• specific behavior is a sample;
• personality is determined by learning
experiences, especially in
interpersonal interactions;
• consistent history results in stable
behavior patterns;
• inconsistent behaviors explained by
specific situational experiences;
5B. WHAT IS THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO
STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• 2 main versions of behavioral approach:
• operant: emphasizes influences of reward and
punishment from external environment;
• cognitive: involves social learning;
• includes learned thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors;
• related to self-efficacy
• learned expectations of success (belief
that person can perform behavior
regardless of past failures and current
obstacles.
6A. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL
APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• belief that the specific way each individual
perceives and interprets the world influences
personality and guides behavior;
• focuses on mental qualities of humans
(consciousness, creativity, self-awareness,
planning, decision-making, responsibility);
• also called humanistic view;
• emphasizes how the individual actively
constructs his own world rather than being
a passive carrier of traits;
• main human motivation is toward selfactualization and personal growth;
6B. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL
APPROACH TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• also called humanistic view;
• emphasizes how the individual actively
constructs his own world rather than being
a passive carrier of traits;
• main human motivation is toward selfactualization and personal growth;
6C. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH
TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• CARL ROGERS - developed idea of selfconcept (part of individual's experience identified
as "i" or "me";
• personality is expression of self-actualizing
tendency;
• importance of unconditional positive regard for
healthy development of personality.
6D. WHAT IS THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH
TO STUDYING PERSONALITY?
• ABRAHAM MASLOW –
• agreed with Carl Rogers about basic
tendency toward growth and self-actualization;
• believed self-actualization is a human need;
• proposed a hierarchy of needs;
• highest need is self-actualization;
• lower needs (physiological survival, safety,
love/belonging, recognition) distract us
from self-actualization
7A. HOW ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BEING
STRESS-PRONE OR DISEASE-PRONE RELATED TO
PERSONALITY?
• certain personality characteristics
may protect a person from stress or
illness;
• HARDY PERSONALITY =
• commitment: strong involvement in
personal values and goals;
• control: belief in own ability to cope with
problems;
• challenge: perceive problems as
opportunities rather than threats;
7B. HOW ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BEING
STRESS-PRONE OR
DISEASE-PRONE RELATED TO PERSONALITY?
• related to self-efficacy (dispositional optimism
and persistent long term belief that most events
will turn out well;
• health and adjustment related to whether person
is positive about self-efficacy;
• may experience better psychological and
physical health if slightly exaggerate personal
power, blame outcomes on external events, and
deny own faults;
7C. HOW ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BEING
STRESS-PRONE OR
DISEASE-PRONE RELATED TO PERSONALITY?
• some characteristics seem related to being
vulnerable to illness:
• negative feelings: cynicism, perceived
helplessness, frustration, lack of control;
• depression/anxiety/hostility: related to
asthma, headaches, arthritis, ulcers;
• toxic type-a behavior: related to coronary heart
disease, negative emotions, difficulty expressing
negative feelings
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
contrast with charismatic type-a:
fast-moving,
involved with work,
internal locus of control,
emotionally expressive,
high-achieving outcomes,
focused and motivated for success.
IN CONCLUSION
ARE THERE ANY
QUESTIONS ABOUT
ANYTHING WE HAVE
DISCUSSED ?