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Time Past and Time Present
時間連繫著現在的我們與過去
0529, 廖怡君、楊立婕
CHANGED CURRICULUM AND
INCREASED COMPETITION
• Changes in China
– 中國學習者不再受儒家傳統影響，反而更加西化
– 西方數學與科學成為了課程的核心，學習者因學習不
同的學科而改變了學習取向
– 中國與其他東亞學習者的learning beliefs和achievement反
映了社會變化，且與儒家學習傳統無關
• 中國移民美國的孩童和西方同儕投入學習
的方式有所不同
• “Magnet High, Harvard, and Heaven!’’
– 不論是來自well-to-do 或humble 背景的中國移民家長，
都希望小孩能到最好的學校與大學
• Mental Problem
– Psychological adjustment
– Parental pressure
– The data don’t support that parental pressure for
achievement truly causes mental problems .
– Asian immigrant children’s mental health problems:
跨語言使用、溫暖感需求落差、相處時間少、家長不
懂小孩的世界觀、小孩不懂家長從原本文化來的觀念
EXAMINATION HELL
• Examination Hell
– 教師中心導向、權威、鼓勵死記硬背、促進外在動機、
扼殺創造力
– Impartial test score
• The real question here is
– Why the Chinese/East Asians feel that they must pursue
learning.
– Do they have nothing else meaningful in life to pursue other
than academic learning?
• 學校學習的目的:
– 提供個體知識與技能，以創造良好的生活及增加社會
流動的機會
– Economic survival goals: 謀生成為了學習唯一的價值
• Making a living
– Affluent v.s low-income background
– European-American v.s Chinese/East Asian students
• The compelling forces behind EuropeanAmerican and Chinese/East Asian learners
respective learning approaches are still their
own cultural traditions.
EXPLAINING ASIAN STUDENTS'
ACHIEVEMENT IN EARLIER RESEARCH
• David McClelland(1963)
– Traditional Chinese lacked achievement motivation, but
thanks to the communist ideological spirit, Chinese people
gained revolutionary zeal and became more motivated
• 1970s
– 日本學生在數學及科學上表現優於西方國家
– Herald Stevenson and James Stigler :
找出亞洲學童學業成就較高的核心原因
learning gap:美國:能力歸因；亞洲:努力歸因
how schools and the school day were organized
• Japanese
– 精神(せいしん):有助於個體解決任務的心態
– 頑張る:積極導向的內在效益，支持個體持續努力
• Hong Kong
– 努力學習
– Effort:對中國學生而言是穩定的因素(西方是不穩定)
• Joseph Tobin, David Wu, and Dana Davidson
– Preschool education
– U.S.: 強調孩童的自我表達、自由探索、享受、同儕互動、
學校中社會與道德規則
– Chinese: nutritional care、教師關注下的集體活動、有紀
律的學習、嚴格遵守社會和道德規則
(日本:教師放手讓孩童在彼此之間學習，自己解決衝突)
• Teaching style
– U.S.: efficient、well-paced style
– Japanese: slow、thorough style
• Familial factors
– Asian parents 與 European-American parents 不同處 :
對孩童的成就有更高的期望、以更結構化的學習活動
(課後或周末的輔導)參與孩童的學習、更緊密地監控孩
童的家庭學習
THE PARADOXICAL CHINESE LEARNER
• Poor learning approaches and high achievement
• Watkins and Biggs used the term Confucian
heritage cultures (CHC) to include countries of
China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan,
Korea, and Vietnam.
Learning Beliefs
西方
東方
• Good teacher:
• Good teacher:
激發學生興趣、清楚講解、
深奧的知識、能夠回答問
題、良好的道德模範
有效率的教學方法、舉辦
活動
• Teacher attributed students'
• Teachers did not see as their
academic failure and misberesponsibility to teach
haviors more to their own
morals to their students.
inadequacy than to students
The family was more responthemselves or their families.
sible for moral instruction.
• Moral and personal growth:
self-perfection
Learning Processes
西方
東方
• 英國學生用複誦來確認是
否真的記得某些東西
• Understanding:
a process of sudden insight
• Intrinsic motivation:
personal autonomy and
choice
• 中國學生為了理解，用複
誦來創造深刻的印象
• Understanding:
a long process that required
extensive mental effort
• Extrinsic motivation:
social influence and determination (such as choice made
by others)
FURTHER RESEARCH: DIGGING INTO
CULTURAL LEARNING BELIEFS
• Researchers in Hong Kong
– CHC and Western cultures interact with each other
– Western teachers interact with CHC learners and schools
directly.
Mapping Cultural Learning Models
• Emic perspective
– An emic perspective is the insider perspective, originating
with the people being studied.
• Cultural model
– They are conceptual frames that shape members' experiences
by supplying the group's shared ways of explaining, predicting,
and interpreting people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
– These frames also guide people in forming their goals and
motivate them toward obtaining their goals.
• Prototype methods
– The language of a given culture has these prototypes for
people to use and to organize their understanding of the
world.
– Prototype methods lent themselves to the study of learning
as conceptualized by humans living in specific cultures.
First study
• 不同文化各選3個大學生聯想與學習/learning
相關的字詞或句子，得到English:242 and
Chinese:145.
• 再拿這些詞句清單給不同文化各20個來自相
似背景的大學生，要求他們增加一些會聯想
到學習的items，得到English:496 and
Chinese:478.
• 不同文化各問60個受試者以1~4點量表評這
些字詞與學習/learning的相關程度.
• Cut-offline: median number 2.72
• Final core list: 203 English and 225 Chinese items.
• Cluster analysis:
– we asked 100 college students from similar backgrounds to sort
their culture's core list into groups according to similarity in
meaning.
I’m going to cover…
• Study2
• 2 Learning models:
– European－American Learning(EA)Model
– Chinese Learning Model
The second study I
• 彌補study1只有詞彙的限制
• 62大學生：描述他們理想中的學習者
• “Optimum(最佳)” of developmental outcome：
– 因文化仍影響人對人生的期許、積極存在的意
義
– 理想存於每人心中並引導其行為
• 仍以文化層次為主,並非個人層次
The second study II
• 「理想學習者」4大面向： p.85
1. The nature of knowledge: purpose, process, view
of intelligence & excellence
2. 學習與道德發展的關係
3. 學習行為：high achievement, failure, boredom,
not understanding the concepts…
4. 學習所造成的情緒面向
• 質化與量化分析
統整時間! 中西學習模型之異同
• 結合前述兩項研究,
分析中西學習模型：
• 四大向度：
– 學習的目標
– 學習投入過程,
agentic process:
personal actions
directed at achieving
desirable goals
– 成就類型
– 學習情緒
西方－學習的目標
1. Cultivate the mind/ understand the world：
– 強調瞭解外在世界、環境
2. Develop one’s ability/skill
–
–
–
–
成為社會的螺絲釘
成功的職業生涯
獨立
解決問題與管理個人生活與環境
3. Reach personal goals(beyond ability/skill)
– Self-fulfillment
– Personal-happiness
– Spiritual quest
西方－學習的投入過程
Active engagement:
• 教室內外的做與學
Communication
• 為瞭解知識而交流、討
論、辯論、爭論、批判
Thinking/critical
reasoning
• 歸納、演繹、對興趣的感想、
內觀
Inquiry探究
• 發現、創新、實驗、觀察、分析…
西方－成就類型
1. 瞭解事物的本質/專家
2. 洞察力、創意性的解決問題
3. 成為佼佼者=> 較社會性
西方－學習情緒
• Affect is an integral part of learning beliefs and processes
• 在學習的過程中的所有情緒反應與長期感受
• 正向：
–
–
–
–
好奇心、興趣與動機
內在享受
挑戰心態
榮譽感(pride):self-confidence, self-esteem
• 負向：
– 無聊、無感的;認為重要=>不放棄;不重要:減少投入的時
間與努力
– 外在動機
– 失望/因挫敗而感到低自尊
與西方學習傳統相呼應
古希臘思想(上周ch.2)
東方－學習的目標
1. 道德上/社會上地自我完善
– 最重要的特色
– 西:以精熟學業科目為主
– 中:學科與自我修養同時並進
2. 為自己習得知識/技能
– 中:強調知識精熟;西:強調能力發展
– 雖皆為求生,中更強調維持社會關係
3. 貢獻社會
– 反映孔式價值
– 學習並不與社會切割
美德
東方－學習的投入過程
認真/誠意
• 終身美德
專心
勤奮/發奮
•奕秋學生-專心致
• 強調實際行動
志－《孟子》
• 家人朋友老師的陪伴
恆心
刻苦
• 學習無捷徑
• 克服困難:家境貧窮、艱難
知識、資質(不成理由)
東方－成就類型
1.
2.
3.
4.
精熟知識的深度與廣度
應用知識(較無強調創新)
道德與之是相輔相成
以上:環環相扣
東方－學習情緒
• 正向：
–
–
–
–
決心,意志
求知若渴/愛上學習(循序漸進)
尊重與收受:並非只是服從權威,而是因為深諳不足
謙遜
• 負向：
– 缺乏對學習的渴望
– 驕傲/自大
– 因學習貧乏而感到罪惡與羞恥（自省）
• 與西方相比:
– 認為挑戰也重要,但需全然熟悉
– 較不驕矜／自我膨脹,並認為誇獎會阻礙進一步的完善
與東方學習傳統相呼應
孔孟思想(上周ch.2)
Cultural－level beliefs
• 詞彙為文化的一部份,並不能視為個人
• 其它因素相互影響,e.g. 性別、社經地位、成
長背景、年齡、角色…
Thank you*