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Introduction to Criminology CRJ 270

Instructor: Jorge Pierrott

Criminology Today

AN INTEGRATIVE INTRODUCTION SEVENTH EDITION

CHAPTER

2 Where Do Theories Come From?

Chapter Objectives

• • • • After reading this chapter, students should be able to answer the following questions: What is evidence-based criminology? How does the meaning of the word evidence in evidence-based criminology differ from the evidence found at a crime scene or the evidence used in criminal trials?

What four eras have characterized the field of criminology over the past 100 years?

What is a theory? What purposes do theories serve? What role do research and experimentation play in theory building in criminology?

What is the role of criminological research in theory building? What is internal validity? External validity? How can threats to internal and external validity be addressed?

Chapter Objectives

• • • • What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods in the social sciences? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method?

What are some of the ethical considerations involved in conducting criminological research?

How do criminological research and experimental criminology impact social policy?

What sections might a typical research report contain?

Why is the Criminological Theory Important?

Evidence-Based Criminology

• Evidence-based criminology  Founded upon the experimental method   Emphasizes randomized controlled experiments “Evidence” refers to scientific findings Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Evidence-Based Criminology

• Increasing importance in the field   American Society of Criminology Division of Experimental Criminology Academy of Experimental Criminology  Journal of Experimental Criminology Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

The Evolving Science of Criminology

• John Laub’s eras of criminological thought  Golden Age of Research (1900-1930)    Golden Age of Theory (1930-1960) Empirical testing of dominant theories (1960-2000) Current era/21st century criminology contains “all possible offspring” of what came before Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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The Evolving Science of Criminology

• Present-day criminology has moved away from armchair criminology and is more scientific.

Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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The Evolving Science of Criminology

• Scientific criminology involves:   The systematic collection of related facts An emphasis on the scientific method  General laws, a field for experimentation or observation, control of academic discourse Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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The Evolving Science of Criminology

• • Scientific criminology involves:  Acceptance into the scientific tradition  Emphasis on a worthwhile subject Modern criminology meets these criteria Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Theory Building

• Goal of criminological research:  Construct theories or models that improve our understanding of criminal behavior and help us create effective strategies to deal with the crime problem Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Theory Building

•

Theory

 A series of interrelated propositions that attempt to describe, explain, predict, and ultimately control some class of events  Test by how well they describe, predict reality Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Uses of Theory

• • • • Provide patterns for interpreting data  Population Link studies together  Other similar studies can be linked Supply frameworks within which concepts and variables have special significance  Who does it affect, how does it affect society?

Allow us to interpret the larger meaning of findings  Death penalty – Is a moral issue?

The Role of Research and Experimentation

• • Research   The use of standardized, systematic procedures in the search for knowledge.

Why is research important in Criminology?

Applied Research

• • • Applied research consists of scientific inquiry that is designed and carried out with practical application in mind.

Meaning – A researcher is working toward some more or less practical goal. What’s an example of this?

  How to stop hate crimes?

How to stop bullying?

Pure Research

• • Pure research is undertaken simply for the sake of advancing scientific knowledge and “does not carry the promise or expectation of immediate, direct relevance.” Example:  Benjamin Franklin proving lightning is electricity. Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Primary vs. Secondary

• Which was primary and which was secondary?

Stages in Research

• • • • Problem identification Development of a research design Choice of data collection techniques Review of findings Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Problem Identification

• • • Choosing the problem/issue to be studied.

Reasons may include:   Political reasons Grant monies  Personal interests Frequently involves testing hypotheses Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Problem Identification

•

Hypothesis

  An explanation that accounts for a set of facts and that can be tested by further investigation Something that is taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigations Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Problem Identification

•

Variables



Concepts that can undergo measurable changes

•

Example: Changes in population, changes in arrests, citations – Something that can be measured.

•

Operationalization



Turning a simple hypothesis into one that is testable



Making the concepts measurable turns them into variables

•

Example: Actually measuring the number of crime during a specific period – Full moon example.

Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Problem Identification

Development of a Research Design

• • Research design  The logic and structure inherent in any particular approach to data gathering Simple research design - One-group pretest-posttest  O 1 x O 2 This design does not eliminate confounding effects Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Validity in Research Designs

• • Internal validity  The certainty that experimental interventions did indeed cause the changes observed in the study group External validity  The ability to generalize research findings to other settings Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Experimental and Quasi Experimental Research Designs

• • Controlled experiments  Attempt to hold conditions other than the experimental intervention constant Quasi-experiments  Give the researcher control over the “when and to whom” of measurement (but not exposure) Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Experimental Design

• Pretest-posttest control group design   Experimental group: O 1 Control group: O 3 x x O 2 O 4 Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Experimental Design

• Randomization is critical to the success of an experimental design    Subjects are assigned to study groups without biases or differences resulting from selection No self-selection allowed, no personal judgment used in subject assignment Controls threats to internal validity Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Choice of Data-Collection Techniques

• • Data gathering strategies provide approaches to the accumulation of information needed for analysis Selection based on:   Ease/simplicity Cost   Time Form required for data Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Choice of Data-Collection Techniques

• Key issue  Will the strategy produce information in a usable form?

Types of Data-Gathering Strategies

Surveys

• • Use questionnaires or surveys to gather “survey data” May interview respondents in person, over the telephone, by e-mail, by fax, or by mail  Free tool – Survey Monkey Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Case Studies

• • In-depth investigations into individual cases  Life history – a single subject is the focus of a case study Suffer from high levels of subjectivity but provide the opportunity to examine individual cases in depth Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Participant Observations

• • Involves various strategies in which the researcher observes a group by participating, to varying degrees, in the activities of the group Researcher may operate undercover or make their purpose and identity known from the start Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Participant Observations

Self-Reporting

• • Subjects are asked to report rates of certain behaviors, such as crime   May provide information when official records are lacking Often considered a form of survey research Introspection/personal reflection techniques – purely subjective Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Secondary Analysis

• • New analysis or evaluation of existing data that was gathered by other researchers Secondhand analysis of information originally collected for a different purpose Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Problems in Data Collection

• Scientific observation must meet two criteria   Intersubjectivity: Independent observers report seeing the same thing under the same circumstances Replicability: When the same conditions exist, the same results can be expected Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Problems in Data Collection

Review of Findings

• Most data subjected to some form of data analysis using statistical techniques  Descriptive statistics: describe, summarize, highlight relationships within data  Inferential statistics: attempt to generalize findings by specifying how likely they are to be true for other populations or locations Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Quantitative versus Qualitative Methods

• •

Quantitative methods

  Techniques that produce measurable results that can be analyzed statistically “Mystique of quantity”

Qualitative methods

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

• Values affect all stages of the research process   No research free from preconceptions, biases Control their effect by being aware of them at the onset of the research Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

• Ethical issues do not affect validity but may impact the lives of researchers and subjects  Protection of human subjects    Privacy Need for disclosure of research methods Data confidentiality Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

• Informed consent   Strategy used to overcome ethical issues inherent in criminological research Inform subjects as to nature of research, their anticipated role, the uses made of the data Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

• Institutional review boards   Established by universities, research organizations, government agencies Examine research proposals to determine whether expectations of ethical conduct have been met before the proposals are submitted to funding organizations Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Social Policy and Criminological Research

• • Ideally, research should significantly impact public crime control policy Realistically  Public officials may be ignorant of current research  Public officials may ignore research findings Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Writing the Research Report

• • • • • • • • Title page Acknowledgements Table of contents Preface Abstract Introduction Review of existing literature Description of existing situation • • • • • • • • Statement of hypothesis Description of research plan Disclaimers/limitations Analysis/discussion Summary/conclusions Endnotes/footnotes Appendices List of references Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger

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Writing the Research Report

•

Refereed journals

  Journals that use peer reviewers to gauge the quality of the manuscripts submitted to them Manuscript submission requirements vary by journal Criminology Today, 7th Edition Frank Schmalleger Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc.

CLASS ACTIVITY

Aprilville, a small town outside Bigcity, plans to implement a Neighborhood Watch program. The town mayor has asked you to find out if the program, once implemented, will have any effect on the town’s crime rate. Design a research study to answer this question: • Formulate one or more hypotheses and operationalize the concepts.

• Choose a research design from those discussed in the chapter and explain why you selected this design.

Document

Transcript Document

Introduction to Criminology CRJ 270

Criminology Today

Chapter Objectives

Chapter Objectives

Why is the Criminological Theory Important?

Evidence-Based Criminology

Evidence-Based Criminology

The Evolving Science of Criminology

The Evolving Science of Criminology

The Evolving Science of Criminology

The Evolving Science of Criminology

Theory Building

Theory Building

Uses of Theory

The Role of Research and Experimentation

Applied Research

Pure Research

Primary vs. Secondary

Stages in Research

Problem Identification

Problem Identification

Problem Identification

Problem Identification

Development of a Research Design

Validity in Research Designs

Experimental and Quasi Experimental Research Designs

Experimental Design

Experimental Design

Choice of Data-Collection Techniques

Choice of Data-Collection Techniques

Types of Data-Gathering Strategies

Surveys

Case Studies

Participant Observations

Participant Observations

Self-Reporting

Secondary Analysis

Problems in Data Collection

Problems in Data Collection

Review of Findings

Quantitative versus Qualitative Methods

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

Social Policy and Criminological Research

Writing the Research Report

Writing the Research Report

CLASS ACTIVITY

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