Groups, Networks, and Organizations

Anthony Giddens Mitchell Duneier Richard P. Appelbaum

Social Groups

What Are Social Groups?

–

Social groups

are collections of people who share common identity and interact with each other based on shared expectations – Shape almost all our experiences

Social Groups

In-groups and Out-groups

–

In-groups

are groups one feels they belong to –

Out-groups

are groups toward which one feels contempt or antagonism – Sense of group identity is created through scorn for the other

Social Groups

Primary and Secondary Groups

–

Primary groups

are small intimate groups characterized by face-to-face interaction –

Secondary groups

are large, impersonal groups that rarely involve emotional ties or enduring relationships

Fig. 6.1 top

Fig. 6.1 bottom

Social Groups

Reference Groups and Group Size

–

Reference groups

provide standards to judge ourselves in terms of how we think we look to others – Size is an important factor in group dynamics • Larger groups are more stable than groups of two (

dyads

) or three (

triads

) • Groups of more than a dozen usually develop formal structure

Social Groups

Types of Leadership

–

Leaders

influence behavior of other members of a group • Most are

transactional

—routine leadership concerned with getting job done • Less common are

transformational

—concerned with changing nature of group

Social Groups

Conformity

– Research shows people are highly susceptible to group pressure – Solomon Asch’s experiment • Showed people will choose group consensus over their own perceptions – Stanley Milgram’s research • Subjects did what they were told, despite perceived injury to others

Fig. 6.2

Networks

What Are Social Networks?

–

Networks

constitute broad sources of relationships, direct and indirect – Strength in weak ties – Connections important in business and politics – Women, people of color, and lower income people have less access to most influential economic and political networks in America than white males do

Networks

The Internet as Social Network

– Makes it possible to radically extend personal networks – Enables contacts without face-to-face interaction • Easier for negative groups, as well as positive groups, to get together

Networks

The Internet as Social Network

– Social position, wealth, race, ethnicity, gender, and physical disability are less likely to cloud social interaction – Enables people to join groups that they normally wouldn’t have access to • But not all have equal access to the Internet

Fig. 6.3

Organizations

Organizations and Bureaucracy

– All modern organizations are

bureaucratic

– Formal organizations designed to achieve objectives – Housed in settings constructed to help realize aims – Important for providing most services in our everyday lives: hospitals, schools, government organizations, etc.

Theories of Organizations

Organizations and Bureaucracy

– Characteristics of bureaucracy are: • Clearly defined hierarchy of authority • Written rules governing conduct of officials at all levels • Officials are full-time and salaried • Separation between tasks within organization and life outside it • No members of organization own the material resources with which they operate

Theories of Organizations

Organizations and Bureaucracy (cont)

– Max Weber argued that bureaucracy is a highly effective means of organizing large numbers of people – Formal and informal relations within bureaucracies: • Informal networks develop at all levels within and between organizations • Personal ties and connections are as important as formal relations

Theories of Organizations

Physical Setting of Organizations

– Physical setting strongly influences organization’s social features • Architecture is closely connected to

surveillance

as means of securing obedience to authority  Direct supervision of subordinates’ work by superiors  Keeping files, records, and case histories about people’s work lives

Theories of Organizations

Bureaucracy and Democracy

– Weber and Michels identified tension between bureaucracy and democracy • On one hand, centralization of decision making is associated with development of modern society • On the other, one of the main features of past two centuries has been expanding pressures toward democracy

Theories of Organizations

Gender and Organization

– Modern organizations have evolved as gendered institutions – Women traditionally segregated into low paying occupations involving routine work • Subordinate to men; are not provided opportunities for promotion

Fig. 6.4

Theories of Organizations

Gender and Organization (cont)

– In recent years, more women entering professional and managerial positions • Some believe women have to adopt a male • management style to succeed

Sexual harassment

and old-boy social networks make achieving success difficult for women

Beyond Bureaucracy?

The Japanese Model

– Large organizations have started to become less bureaucratic and more flexible – The Japanese Model: • Bottom-up decision making • Less specialization • Job security • Group orientation • Merging of work and private lives – Many Western firms have adopted aspects of Japanese management systems

Beyond Bureaucracy?

Technology and Modern Organizations

– New information technology is changing the way organizations work – Many tasks can now be done electronically, allowing organizations to transcend time and space • Allows for more flexibility within organization – Organizations can now network with each other; they no longer operate as independent units

Beyond Bureaucracy?

The “McDonaldization” of Society?

– Despite emergence of

debureaucratization

, principles of fast-food restaurants are dominating other sectors of society • Highly standardized and regulated • More automated systems are employed instead of human beings

Organizations That Span the World

Global Organizations

– Two important forms of global organization are: •

International governmental organizations

(IGOs) are established by treaties among governments for conducting business among member nations •

International nongovernmental organizations

(INGOs) are established by agreements among individuals or private organizations

How Do Groups and Organizations Affect Your Life?

What Is Social Capital?

–

Social capital

refers to the knowledge and connections that enable people to cooperate with one another for mutual benefit and extend their influence • Social capital has declined in the past quarter century in the United States • May indicate lessening of Americans’ commitment to civic engagement

Conclusion

How Is Social Organization Changing?

Groups and organizations remain central in our lives, but group affiliation is changing • Conventional groups losing ground • Global economy and information technology are redefining group life • Future could provide renewed communication and social intimacy or further isolation and social distance

Review Questions

1. A reference group is ____________.

a) b) c) d) a group toward which one feels antagonism or contempt usually a small group characterized by face-to-face interaction and a strong sense of commitment a group that provides a standard for judging one’s attitudes or behaviors a group one belongs to and toward which one feels loyalty and respect

Review Questions

2. The Asch Test provides insight into what concept?

a) b) c) d) coalition building in triads group conformity obedience to authority small group instability

Review Questions

3. Which of the following is an example of networking in order to find a job?

a) You ask your parents’ neighbor, who is in the local Rotary Club, if he knows of any small business owners who might be open to hiring a college student for part-time work.

b) c) d) You visit several internet job boards looking for openings for which you are qualified.

A friend looks through the classified ads and circles a few jobs that she thinks might be a good fit for you.

You make an appointment at an employment agency your aunt recommended.

Review Questions

4. According to Max Weber, why is the expansion of bureaucracy inevitable in modern societies?

a) b) c) d) Bureaucracy is the best middle ground between chaos and authoritarian rule.

Bureaucracies provide many secure jobs and it is in the interest of people in such positions to do all they can not only to safeguard their own jobs, but to expand the bureaucracy to create more jobs.

An ideal bureaucracy provides both administrative efficiencies and opportunities for creativity.

Bureaucratic authority is the only way to manage the administrative demands of large-scale social systems.

Review Questions

5. Michel Foucault argued that the way an organization’s __________ is/are set up reveals a great deal about its __________

a) b) c) d) surveillance system; level of trust of its employees management structure; social makeup bylaws; efforts at transparency physical space; system of authority

Review Questions

6. The increase in the popularity of the corporate culture approach to management is due in part to _________.

a) b) c) d) the increase in the number of women in top management positions, many of whom have advocated for this approach pressure exerted by some of the largest automobile manufacturing unions around the world who began to support this approach after seeing it successfully implemented in Japan the example set by a few major American companies who pioneered the approach the recognition by corporate leaders that in order for their organizations to be successful, they need employees who feel invested in the company, its processes, and products

Review Questions

7. According to the political scientist Robert Putnam, one of the most important factors to the health of a modern democracy is _________.

a) b) c) d) its commitment to international government organizations the transparency of its elections the existence of a strong but flexible bureaucracy its social capital