Transcript Le parc japonais est beau et calme

Writing a
Scientific Paper
There are two reasons why you should learn
how to write good reports of your science
projects.
1. by putting your work into words, you will gain a better
understanding of your project.
2. knowing you are going to write a report of your
project and what should be included in the report will
help you plan and conduct the project. You will have
to apply the same scientific method - the planned,
orderly procedures - in writing, as you do in your
research work.
A paper on a scientific or technical
subject necessarily consists of:
a) a report of facts
b) an interpretation of facts
c) a combination of a report and an
interpretation.
(1) The method of writing is governed by many
conditions, including the nature of the
subject, the purpose of the article, the
characteristics of the writer, and the interests
of the probable readers. No set method or
arrangement will be suited to all kinds of
papers.
(2) It is important that the plan of the
composition be made very clear to the
reader. The main topics and their
subdivisions should be plainly indicated. In
this respect scientific writing differs from
literary composition.
(3) A scientific paper is intended to be studied
and used as reference; it is not merely to be
read. Hence literary devices should be
subordinated if they interfere with clearness.
The plan should be self-evident throughout
the composition.
The Title
A good title will distingush your project report
from all others which have to do with the
same general area of study. Titles of scinetific
reports should convey important information
rather than show off the author's cleverness.
Abstract
The abstract is a brief condensation of the whole paper
Abstract is a summary of the report that follows the title
Page (in geosciences, 300-500 words is rather common).
This summary should include in one paragraph a statement
of the purpose of the project, general methods or
procedures used, and principal findings and conclusions.
The purpose of an Abstract is to give the reader enough
information for him to decide whether or not to read the
whole report.
Introduction (& background information)
This section should give the reader enough
information to be able to understand the history
and the importance of your problem. It will often
include a review of other people's findings. If well
written, this section will explain your motives for
undertaking the project and will stimulate the
reader. In short, this section contains:
A. Nature of the problem; its state at the beginning
of the investigation.
B. Purpose, scope, and method of the investigation.
C. Most significant outcome of the investigation;
the state of the problem at the end of the
investigation.
(this part is not always there)
「寫作教學中心」預訂於3/11（週五）辦理本學期第一場演講（訊息如下）。歡迎
各位踴躍報名
https://info2.ntu.edu.tw/register/flex/main.html?actID=20111260_01&sesID=1 。
時間：2011年3月11日下午2：20 - 4：20
講題：The Beginning is Half of the Whole: Writing Great Introductions
講員：Marc Anthony（安馬克）
地點：共同教室204
◎演講摘要
This seminar examines approaches to writing the introduction for research. It is
widely recognized that writing introductions is slow, difficult and troublesome for
both native as well as non-native speakers. Indeed, apart from the abstract, the
introduction is often delayed to the last stage of the writing process, so daunting it
is for many researchers to write.
A key concern of writing a good introduction is that it serves to “sell” the rest of the
article. If readers do not understand what the writer is researching, they will not
be very interested in reading further. A good introduction clearly establishes the
territory of the research and grabs the audience’s attention, encouraging them to
read further.
A key area we will examine in this seminar is the “moves” or rhetorical
explanations that are commonly found in introductions. These include how to
express the claim of centrality in the research, and the language of defining
and occupying your niche, or the research gap, that exists in the particular
area.
To understand all this, we will use several comparable examples from top-tier
journals and learn how to master the introduction by examining the stylistic
choices of several published researchers.
Additionally, we will take some time to clarify the use of tenses when citing the
literature.
Vocabulary:
daunting - tending to overwhelm or intimidate <a daunting task> ; demoralizing; 使人畏缩的
grab – seize, capture, grasp
‘rhetoric (n.) – the art of speaking or writing effectively; skill in the effective use of speech; the
art or power of speaking or writing in a forceful and convincing way; oratory;
rhe’torical (adj.) – bombastic, oratorical; grandiloquent; 修辞的 ,华丽虚饰的语言的
niche – a recess in a wall especially for a statue; syn. = corner, habitat, territory
top-tier (pron. as “teer”) – a row, rank, or class, category
The Problem
• If your report is based on the study of specific
problem, the problem should be clearly stated or
defined. You should tell whether you are searching
for or testing hypotheses, suggesting a theory, or
merely reporting some observations to be made
under clearly specified conditions.
• The best reports will include a discussion of the
relationship between the problem and existing
theories.
Hypotheses to be tested
• If one or a series of experiments is being
reported, all hypotheses being tested should
be stated. This section may also include a
discussion of what the possible experimental
results will mean in terms of accepting or
rejecting the hypotheses.
Experimental procedures
1. Anyone who reads your report should, with
the proper materials and facilities, be able
to repeat your experiment or observations
and obtain similar results. Therefore, you
must describe in detail all of the equipment
and conditions (T, P, etc.).
2.
Photographs and drawings can be used as well as
words. Every step in your procedure should be
carefully explained. If you discover that some
method of doing something will not work, mention it
so that others will not repeat your mistake. In brief:
(a) Description of the equipment and materials employed.
(b) Description of the experiments. Explanation of the way in which
the work was done. (Give sufficient detail to enable a competent
worker to repeat your experiments. Emphasize the features that are
new.)
Result (data) & Observations
• Presentation and description of the results.
• Numerical data such as measurements and
other statistics are best presented in the
form of tables and figures.
Discussion of results
(Analysis and Interpretation of Data or Observations)
• In simple, short reports, this section may
sometimes be included with the preceding one. The
analysis of numerical data may include graphs and
scattergrams. Statistical methods may be used to
discover relationships. Non-mathematical
observations should be analyzed and interpreted in
terms of the hypotheses that were being tested. In
other words,
a. Main principles, causal relations, or
genralisations that are shown by the results.
b. Evidence (as shown by your data) for each of
the main conclusions.
c. Exceptions and opposing theories, and
explanations of these.
d. Comparison of your results and interpretations
with those of other workers.
Conclusions
• In this section, each hypothesis should be reexamined and rejected if the data show it be wrong.
Hypotheses which are supported by the research can
be tentatively accepted for further testing. You will
seldom be able to fully accept a hypothesis.
• In earth science papers, this section is commonly
presented concisely and in a style of point-by-point.
It is sufficiently different from « abstract » in format.
Implications & Recommendations
• In this next-to-last section of your report, you should
discuss any meaning your research may have for a
better understanding of a broad area of science. You
should also include a discussion of any new
problems (or revision of hypothesis) that have been
suggested by your study. Never try to draw illogical
connections between your research results and
unrelated areas of interest and study.
• In earth sciences, this section is often included in
« Conclusions »
Acknowledgements
The order of acknowledgement generally follows this rule:
1. The persons who have helped you carry out this
research (help you in generating ideas through
discussion, producing data, etc.).
2. The persons who have reviewed your paper and
provided comments and suggestions.
3. The organisations which provided financial support
to your research.
4. Contribution number of your research institute.
Reference (or Bibliography)
• You should strictly follow the style imposed by each
individual journal.
• If you are a young researcher or student, I highly
recommend you to use « EndNote » software to
build up your own bibliography. This will save you a
lot of time in the research and/or preparation of a
scientific paper.
Search of references
大多數的書目資料庫需要付費才能閱覽內文。許多資料庫演化成數位圖書館，提
供索引的全文檔案，另外也有資料庫藉由非書目的學術資料庫轉變為更完整的學
科搜尋引擎，化學摘要（Chemical Abstracts）和 Entrez 就是個例子。
(copied from:華樂絲論文編修/翻譯 www.editing.tw ; [email protected]
1. Thomson Reuters Web of Knowledge
wokinfo.com/products_tools/multidisciplinary/webofscience
Thomson Reuters早期稱為美國科學資訊研究所（Institute for Scientific
Information, ISI），內含超過 23,000 筆期刊資料，以及超過 110,000 筆來自科學、
社會科學、藝術人文領域的論文集。同時也提供書目內容及工具以利存取、分析、
管理研究資料。其跨領域的資料庫可同時進行搜尋，Web of Science（WOS）即
是 Thomson Reuters 的資料庫之一。
2. Web of Science（ wokinfo.com）
WOS 是個包含各領域摘要和引用資料的資料庫，有追蹤與分析研究引用文獻的工
具，資料庫中的期刊數量超過 10,000 筆，期刊年份更可追溯至 1900 年。WOS
有六個資料庫：科學引用文獻索引（Science Citation Index Expanded 內橫跨150
門學科，有超過 7100 筆主要期刊資料）、社會科會引用文獻索引（Social
Science Citation Index）、藝術與人文引用文獻索引（Arts and Humanities
Citation Index）、會議論文引用文獻索引（Conference Proceedings Citation
Index）、化學索引（Index Chemicus）、最新化學反應資訊（Current Chemical
Reactions）。
WOS 與其他摘要索引資料庫不同，它的期刊篩選過程十分嚴謹。期刊入選 WOS
之後，由期刊引用文獻評比統計資料庫（Journal Citation Report, JCR）計算該入
選期刊的影響係數，JCR 提供客觀且有系統的方法精要地評估所有經同儕審閱具
影響力的國際期刊，同時藉由引用文獻的可量化統計資料評估出版商。藉由彙整
文章的引用文獻，JCR 依期刊與領域類別來評估研究影響力，並顯示引用與被引
用期刊間的關係。
3. Scopus（www.scopus.com/scopus/home.url）
Scopus 是新的摘要與引文資料庫，同時也是 Elsevier 提供的線上搜尋工具。這是
全球最大的論文集錦，範圍涵括生命科學、醫療科學、物理及社會科學，有超過
18,000 份具同儕審查制度的期刊，這些期刊提供了2500 萬篇摘要。Scopus 有網
頁、專利、未正式出版文章及其他供選擇的來源（機構典藏、數位典藏、特殊主題
典藏），並擁有百分之百的 MEDLINE 醫學文獻資料。Scopus 的搜尋有許多特色，
它可顯示一篇文章受引用的次數及引用者的姓名，也可追蹤及分析研究結果。
General Elements of Scientific Writing
Content
Title
Title page
Aim
A short phrase that summarizes the entire topic for the
convenience of reading, cataloguing, indexing and
referencing
The page, contains the title of paper, its authors and their
affiliations, and the name of the corresponding author and its
addressees including e-mail
Application
All kinds of papers
and reports
Long articles
Authorship and
affiliation
Give the author his due credit and responsibility for the
research, for the convenience of cataloguing, indexing and
referencing
All kinds of papers
and reports
Abstract
A shortened form of the article, giving only the most
important facts or arguments to help reader understand and
assess the paper, or help him decide whether the paper is
the one he needs, and whether he should read it through.
Parts of papers,
reports, especially
journal articles
Keywords
Acknowledgements
Contents
Help computer system provide indexing functionality and
abstracts of articles
A short paragraph in which the writer names people or other
organizations that have helped in completing the research
work and writing the paper
The list of items or parts contained in an article, with the
number of the page they begin on
Journal articles
Generally required
A longer article or
paper should have an
index page
Make separate lists for figures as well as tables and their
corresponding page numbers for the convenience of
referencing
Articles with many
figures and tables
Provide a list of specialized, technical, or abbreviated terms
with their meanings which occurred in the paper for the
convenience of referencing
Articles with many
specialized terms,
symbols &
abbreviations
Introduction
Introduce the background of the paper, explain its theme
and goal, and give information about its contents for the
preparation of further reading
All kinds of papers
and reports
Background
Background is often a part of Introduction, but some papers
treat them separately. If Background is to be separated from
Introduction, Introduction will focus on the unveiling of the
organizational structure, whereas Background on the
introduction of history and goal about the research.
Additionally, the goal can also be put in another section.
Depends
Materials and
methods
Introduce the basic elements of the research and
experiment, as well as the methods and means to perform
qualitative and quantitative analyses. It should be detailed
enough so a skilled laboratory technician could duplicate the
experiment through each step described. This section
should enable a reader with suitable background to exercise
judgment on the rationality and effectiveness of the
experiment results.
Required in a paper
or report. Some
articles call this
"procedure".
List of
illustrations
Glossary of
terms and
abbreviations
Introduce the information one gets from a scientific
experiment or medical test
Necessary for most
papers and reports
except for application
forms and feasibility
reports
Discussion
Explain, conclude, analyze, compare and summarize the
results of the experiment, then lift it to the theory level
It is necessary for
most papers and
reports except for
application forms and
feasibility reports
Conclusion
Provide answers to the all questions from the introduction,
get final results mainly from full texts discussed
Applicable to papers
and reports
Suggestions
for future
research
Based on research subjects indicate issues needed for
further study
Parts of papers,
reports
List of
references
To prevent from plagiarism, acknowledge correlations of
your work and opinions with other researchers
Citations of other’s
articles, directly or
indirectly
Results
Appendices
List all relevant data, facilities, codes, and charts to enhance
the fluency and readability of the articles
When there are many
complicated
supportive materials
of the papers and
reports
Index
Facts about
the author
List key words in alphabetical orders, also state their page
numbers for the convenience of referencing
Long articles
Provide study background of the authors for the assessment
of their articles.
Distinguished
journals, papers
In summary,
1. Correct organization of the content of your paper.
2. Clear statement of the research aims and related theoretical basis.
3. Detailed explanation of the analytical or experimental procedures.
4. Presentation of the data and pertinent observations.
5. Discussion – Brief introduction of the items to be discussed.
6. Interpretation of your data. Over-interpretation should be avoided.
7. Admonition or caution of the limitation of the research.
8. Explanation of any results not compatible with prediction.
9. Incorporation of the comments and suggestions provided by the
reviewers if the paper has gone through a review process.
10. Conclusions
Bon appétit !