Transcript Document

Emotions
Many thinkers disagree on answers to these questions:
Is surprise an emotion?
(Some people say “always”, others say “only in certain cases”.)
If you love your country, is that an emotion, or an attitude?
What if your love for your country is far from your present thoughts?
Can you have an emotion without being aware of it?
E.g. jealousy, infatuation
Does an emotion have to have some externally observable/measurable
physiological manifestation?
Can a fly feel pain, or have emotions?
Is there a stage at which a human fetus becomes able to have emotions?
E.g. able to worry about how the birth will go?
Could a disembodied mathematician have emotions?
E.g. feel disappointment at finding a flaw in a proof?
There is no consensus about what emotions are
Prejudices That Confuse the
Investigation
Some people assume:
That minds must be “embodied” and emotions must involve bodies
Ignoring the possibility of passionate disembodied mathematicians.
That emotions are required for intelligence.
That emotions evolved because they are useful
Maybe some did. It does not follow that all are useful. Many may be sideeffects of other useful mechanisms.
That you can’t have an emotion without being conscious of it.
What about the person who is obviously infatuated or jealous but unaware of
the fact?
That it would be a “bad thing” if robots could have emotions.
Could they possibly do worse things than humans do to other humans?
A Tip for Doing Conceptual
Analysis
If someone puts forward a definition of mental
state or process X, the question:
“Does this also apply to X in flies, rats,
chimpanzees, newborn infants?”
often reveals that the definition was not based on
sufficient thought.
Affect – Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary
Noun: The conscious subjective aspect of an emotion considered
apart from bodily changes.
Verb: Applies to the acting of a stimulus strong enough to produce
a noticeable response or reaction or modification
Synonyms: INFLUENCE, TOUCH, IMPRESS, SWAY
Emotions are a Subclass of
“Affective” States
Affective states are of many kinds. They include not only what we ordinarily
call emotions but also states involving desires, pleasures, pains, goals, values,
ideals, attitudes, preferences, and moods.
The general notion of “affective state” is very hard to define but very roughly it
involves using some kind of information that is compared (explicitly or
implicitly) against what is happening, sensed either internally or externally.
–When there’s a discrepancy some action is taken, or tends to be taken to
remove the discrepancy by acting on the sensed thing: affective states
involve a disposition to change reality in some way to reduce a mismatch.
– If the information is part of a percept or a belief, then detecting a
discrepancy tends to produce a change in the stored “reference”
information.
Emotions are a Subclass of
“Affective” States
There is a more primitive type of control state which does not use any sort
of description or representation that can be compared with reality, but
merely generates action, or has a disposition to produce action (including
resisting change). Many innate behaviors are like that. Are these
“affective” states?
There’s no right definition of such a vague notion.
Emotions (from Latin emovere meaning moving, displacing) are, as its
etymology suggests, manifest reactions to those affective conditions that,
due to their intensity, move us to some kind of action.
Affective Computing Group – MIT
http://affect.media.mit.edu/
“Affective Computing is computing that relates to, arises from, or
deliberately influences emotions.
Emotion is fundamental to human experience, influencing cognition,
perception, and everyday tasks such as learning, communication, and even
rational decision-making. However, technologists have largely ignored
emotion and created an often frustrating experience for people, in part because
affect has been misunderstood and hard to measure. Our research develops
new technologies and theories that advance basic understanding of affect and
its role in human experience. We aim to restore a proper balance between
emotion and cognition in the design of technologies for addressing human
needs.”
Definition – Whatis?com
http://whatis.techtarget.com/
Affective computing is human-computer interaction in which a device has the
ability to detect and appropriately respond to its user's emotions and other
stimuli. A computing device with this capacity could gather cues to user
emotion from a variety of sources. Facial expressions, posture, gestures,
speech, the force or rhythm of key strokes and the temperature changes of the
hand on a mouse can all signify changes in the user's emotional state, and
these can all be detected and interpreted by a computer. A built-in camera
captures images of the user and algorithms are used to process the data to yield
meaningful information. speech recognition and gesture recognition are among
the other technologies being explored for affective computing applications.
A Control-based
Conception of Emotion
What is there in common between
– a crawling woodlouse that rapidly curls up if suddenly tapped with a pencil,
– a fly on the table that rapidly flies off when a swatter approaches,
– a fox squealing and struggling to escape from the trap that has clamped its leg,
– a child suddenly terrified by a large object rushing towards it,
– a person who is startled by a moving shadow when walking in a dark
passageway,
– a rejected lover unable to put the humiliation out of mind
– a mathematician upset on realizing that a proof of a hard theorem is fallacious,
– a grieving parent, suddenly remembering the lost child while in the middle of
some important task?
A Control-based
Conception of Emotion
Proposed Answer:
In all cases there are at least two sub-systems at work in the
organism, and one of them, a specialized sub-system,
somehow interrupts or suppresses or changes the behavior of
others, producing some alteration in (relatively) global
(internal or external) behavior of the system.
A Control-based
Conception of Emotion
WE CAN MAKE IT MORE PRECISE BY:
– spelling out different kinds of information-processing control architectures in
which such things (e.g. global interrupts or modulations of processing) can
occur
– showing how different varieties of states with these general features can arise in
different architectures.
Different sorts of emotions (and other affective states) arise out of different sorts
of:
– Interacting sub-systems
–Ways one can interrupt or modulate another
– Functional roles and side-effects
Affect and Architecture
As with emotions, which affective states are possible in an
organism or machine will depend on the informationprocessing architecture of the whole system.
We’ll consider three architectural layers:
reactive
deliberative
meta-management
and the different sorts of emotions that can be associated with
them.
States and Processes
There are at least three different classes of mental phenomena
commonly referred to as “emotions”.
Primary emotions
Evolutionarily oldest – depend only on reactive mechanisms
Secondary emotions
Deliberative mechanisms generating these evolved later
Tertiary emotions
Newest and rarest: involve disruption of meta-management, e.g.
loss of control of attention. These are usually not distinguished
from secondary emotions
These rather vaguely defined categories must be re-defined in terms of the
information-processing architectures (virtual machine architectures) that
make them possible.
E.g., an animal without deliberative mechanisms cannot have
secondary emotions.
Primary Emotions
Examples of primary emotions familiar in humans
Being startled by a loud noise
Being frozen in terror as boulder crashes towards you,
Being nauseated by a horrible smell
In primary emotions, sensor states and/or internal reactive states trigger a fast
but stupid reactive “alarm” mechanism that produces global changes in motors
and internal reactive states.
– Simple versions occur even in insects: when flee, fight, feed, freeze, or mate
responses override other processes. (The five Fs!)
– In humans these primary emotions often have sophisticated
accompaniments that cannot occur in most other animals capable of having
primary emotions.
E.g. when we are aware of having them we are using meta-management
mechanisms that are not needed for primary emotions.
Often the primary emotion will immediately trigger some other kind, e.g.
apprehension, a secondary or tertiary emotion.
Secondary Emotions
Examples — You are:
Afraid the bridge you are crossing may give way
Relieved that you got to the far side safely
Afraid the bridge your child is crossing may give way
Worried about what to say during your interview
Undecided whether to cancel your holiday in ...
Enjoying the prospect of success in your endeavor
Secondary emotions are triggered by events in a deliberative sub-system. Some of
these are triggered by thinking about what might happen, what might have
happened, what did not happen, etc., unlike primary emotions which are
triggered only by actual occurrences.
So secondary emotions require deliberative capabilities with ‘what if’, i.e.
counterfactual, representational and reasoning capabilities. These are very subtle
and complex requirements.
Counterfactual Reasoning
Counterfactual: statement about the consequences of things which
happen to be false.
In a case where proposition P is contrary to fact, counterfactual
reasoning involves drawing inferences about what P would imply if it
were true.
Because, by definition, a counterfactual is a conditional in which the
antecedent is false, logically speaking all counterfactuals are true
statements.
This has led some philosophers to argue that counterfactuals are not in
fact cases of material implication.
This, in turn, has prompted the construction of formalisms with which
to represent differences between this type of hypothetical reasoning
and material implication.
Tertiary Emotions
Examples — You are:
Infatuated with someone you met recently
Overwhelmed with grief
Riddled with guilt about betraying a friend
Full of excited anticipation of a loved one’s return
Full of longing for your mother
Basking in a warm glow of pride after winning an election
Obsessed with jealousy about a colleague’s success
These involve disruption of high level self monitoring and control mechanisms.
I.e., there is loss of control of thought processes. Thus they cannot occur in
animals and machines that are incapable of having such control.
An architecture including meta-management capabilities is required for tertiary
emotions.
Emotions and Architectures
In all of the categories (primary, secondary, tertiary emotions) there
is a subsystem that produces some relatively global changes in the rest of the
system, or in much of it.
They differ in
– What kind of subsystem does the disrupting
– Where the information comes from that triggers the disrupting (e.g. does it
come from a deliberative layer, or only sensors and internal states of a
reactive layer?)
– Which parts of the system are disrupted, e.g. is there externally visible
behavior or only internal disruption? Which internal parts?
– Also there are differences in kind of semantic content, time scale, what can
and cannot suppress the disruption, whether learning is involved, etc.
Classes Not Mutually Exclusive
All three kinds of emotional processes can coexist in complex situations.
As a result of this, the emotions labeled in ordinary language, e.g. “fear”, “anger”,
“relief”, “distress”, cannot simply be classified as primary, secondary or tertiary.
Often they are a mixture.
People involved in long and tiring adventure trips often describe multiple
emotions at the end. E.g. they may be simultaneously:
Glad to have succeeded in their aims
Regretful at not having done better
Sad that the trip is over
Relieved that some threat did not materialize (e.g. running out of fuel)
Glad to see their families again
Hoping to be selected for their national team
Desperately longing for a good meal
Worried about an injury incurred on the trip
Architectural Underpinnings
Different architectural underpinnings are required for different
categories of emotions.
Primary emotions:
Require sensors linked to fast reactive mechanisms that can
sometimes trigger rapid global signal patterns sent to motors and
other sub-systems.
Secondary emotions (central and peripheral):
Require signals from deliberative mechanisms to fast reactive
mechanisms that can, under certain conditions, trigger rapid global
reactions.
Tertiary emotions (with and without peripheral effects):
Presuppose self-monitoring self-controlling meta-management
systems that can be disrupted or modulated by other sub-processes.
Further Refinements
Finer emotional distinctions can be made when we understand the
underlying architecture better.
E.g.
– “Purely central” vs “partly peripheral” secondary emotions.
– Second-order emotions (being ashamed of feeling jealous).
– Deliberately induced emotions (teacher who – reluctantly – allows
himself to get angry to achieve control of a difficult class)
– Emotions that involve constant activity (plotting, fretting, fuming,
ranting).
– Emotions that vary in intensity over time.
– Long term, mostly dormant, emotions, e.g. jealousy, grief. (Often
ignored.)
Important Human Emotions
Socially important human emotions involve rich concepts and knowledge
and high level control mechanisms (architectures).
Example: longing for someone or something:
Semantics:
To long for something you need to know of its existence, its
remoteness, and the possibility of being together again.
Control:
One who has deep longing for X does not merely occasionally
think it would be wonderful to be with X. In deep longing,
thoughts are often uncontrollably drawn to X. Moreover, such
longing may impact on various kinds of high level decision
making as well as the focus of attention.
Physiological processes (outside the brain) may or may not be involved.
Summary So Far
1. We can reduce conceptual muddles regarding emotion by trying to use
architecture-based concepts.
2. Different architectures are relevant in different contexts (e.g. infants,
adults, other animals). So we need to explore different families of concepts
(e.g. for describing infants, chimps, cats, people with brain damage).
3. Finding out which architectures are relevant is a hard research
problem. One suggestion is that humans have three architectural layers
that manifest themselves not only centrally but also in perception and
action sub-systems. Most other animals have only a subset.
4. At least three (and several more if we look closely) classes of affective
states and processes can be distinguished, related to different
architectural layers.
5. Many other concepts (e.g. “learning”, “belief”, “motivation”,
“intentional action”) can be refined on the basis of hypothesised
architectures.
What Use are Emotions
• In 1994 Antonio Damasio, a well known neuroscientist, published his book
Descartes’ Error.
He argued that emotions are needed for intelligence, and accused
Descartes and many others of not grasping that.
• In 1996 Daniel Goleman published Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can
Matter More than IQ, quoting Damasio with approval.
• Likewise Rosalind Picard a year later in her book Affective Computing.
• Since then there has been a flood of publications and projects echoing
Damasio’s claim, and many researchers in Artificial Intelligence have
become convinced that emotions are essential for intelligence, so they are
now producing many computer models containing a module called
‘Emotion’.
• Before that, serious researchers had begun to argue that the study of
emotions and affect had not had its rightful place in psychology, and
cognitive science, but the claims were more moderate.
E.g. a journal called Cognition and Emotion was started in 1987.
What Use are Emotions
Damasio’s argument rested heavily on two examples:
• Phineas Gage: In 1848, an accidental explosion of a charge he had set
blew his tamping iron through his head – destroying the left frontal part
of his brain.
“He lived, but having previously been a capable and efficient
foreman, one with a well-balanced mind, and who was looked on as a
shrewd smart business man, he was now fitful, irreverent, and grossly
profane, showing little deference for his fellows. He was also
impatient and obstinate, yet capricious and vacillating, unable to
settle on any of the plans he devised for future action. His friends said
he was No longer Gage.”
http://www.deakin.edu.au/hbs/GAGEPAGE/Pgstory.htm
What Use are Emotions
• Elliot, Damasio’s patient (‘Elliot’ was not his real name.) Following a
brain tumor and subsequent operation, Elliot suffered damage in
the same general brain area as Gage (left frontal lobe).
Like Gage, he experienced a great change in personality. Elliot had
been a successful family man, and successful in business. After his
operation he became impulsive and lacking in self-discipline. He
could not decide between options where making the decision was
important but both options were equally good. He perseverated on
unimportant tasks while failing to recognize priorities. He had lost all
his business acumen and ended up impoverished, even losing his wife
and family. He could no longer hold a steady job. Yet he did well on
standard IQ tests.
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/damasio/
What Follows?
Both patients appeared to retain high intelligence as
measured by standard tests, but not as measured by their
ability to behave sensibly.
Both had also lost certain kinds of emotional reactions.
Damasio’s Argument
In a nutshell, here is the argument Damasio produced which many people
in many academic disciplines enthusiastically accepted as valid:
There are two factual premises from which a conclusion is drawn.
P1 Damage to frontal lobes impairs emotional capabilities
P2 Damage to frontal lobes impairs intelligence
C Emotions are required for intelligence
Is this a valid argument?
One can argue that the conclusion does not follow from the premises.
Whether the conclusion is true is a separate matter.
Compare This Argument
We ‘prove’ that cars need functioning horns in order to start,
using two premises on which to base the conclusion:
P1 Damaging the battery stops the horn working in a car
P2 Damage to the battery prevents the car starting
C A functioning horn is required for the car to start
Does C follow from P1 and P2?
A Critical Observation
The following should occur to the thoughtful listener:
• two capabilities A and B could presuppose some common
mechanism M, so that
• damaging M would damage both A and B
• without either of A or B being required for the other.
For instance, even if P1 and P2 are both true, you can damage the starter
motor and leave the horn working, or damage the horn and leave the
starter motor working!
Why Buy Damasio’s Argument
A possible explanation for the surprising fact that so many intelligent
people so easily accept what appears to be an invalid argument is
sociological: they are part of a culture in which people want the
conclusion to be true.
There seems to be a wide-spread (though not universal) feeling, even
among many scientists and philosophers, that intelligence, rationality,
critical analysis, problem-solving powers, are over-valued, and that they
have defects that can be overcome by emotional mechanisms.
This leads people to like Damasio’s conclusion. They want it to be true.
And this somehow causes them to accept as valid an argument for that
conclusion, even though they would notice the flaw in a structurally
similar argument for a different conclusion (e.g. the car horn example).
On the Other Hand ...
In fact Damasio produced additional theoretical explanations
of what is going on, so, in principle, even though the quoted
argument is invalid, the conclusion might turn out to be true
and explained by his theories.
Emotions and Interfaces
Expressive Interfaces
User Frustration
Anthropomorphism in Interaction
Synthetic Characters (Agents)
Motivation
functionality and performance aspects are
not always sufficient to make users
comfortable
expressive interfaces can convey
additional information to the user
affective computing has to be used with
care, it gets annoying very easily
Objectives
be aware of the effects that the use of
expressive computing methods can have in user
interaction
identify appropriate techniques that enhance the
user’s comfort level with the system
balance the quality, quantity, and
expressiveness of feedback from the system to
the user
identify and avoid common mistakes that can
lead to user frustration
How Interfaces Affect Users
Expressive interfaces
how the ‘appearance’ of an interface can elicit
positive responses
Negative aspects
how computers frustrate users
Anthropomorphism and interface agents
The pros and cons
Designing synthetic characters
Affective Aspects
HCI has generally been about designing
efficient and effective systems
Recently, move towards considering how
to design interactive systems to make
people respond in certain ways
e.g. to be happy, to be trusting, to learn, to be
motivated
Expressive Interfaces
Color, icons, sounds, graphical elements
and animations are used to make the ‘look
and feel’ of an interface appealing
Conveys an emotional state
In turn this can affect the usability of an
interface
People are prepared to put up with certain
aspects of an interface (e.g. slow download
rate) if the end result is very appealing and
aesthetic
Friendly Interfaces
Microsoft pioneered friendly interfaces for
technophobes - ‘At home with Bob’
software
Microsoft Bob
Microsoft Bob was designed to be a user friendly interface for
Microsoft Windows version 3.1.
Bob included various office suite programs such as a calendar, a
finance application, and a word processor.
The user interface was designed to be helpful to novice computer
users, but many saw its methods of assistance as too cute and
involved.
Each action, such as creating a new text document, featured the
step-by-step tutorials no matter how many times the user had been
through the process.
Users were assisted by cartoon characters whose appearance was
usually vaguely related to the task.
These characteristics earned Bob the 7th place in PC World (March
26, 2006) Magazine's list of the 25 worst products of all time.
Microsoft Bob
Bob featured a diverse selection of
"guides," representing an early form of the
Office Assistant and Microsoft Agent
technologies.
Each guide possessed its own unique
"personality" and had its own array of
animations.
Bob’s Buddies
Rover, the yellow dog
Blythe, a firefly from New York City
Chaos, a fluffy cat from France
Digger, an Irish earthworm
Hopper, a blue stuffed bunny rabbit
Java, a coffee-drinking dragon from Guatemala
Ruby, a parrot
Shelly, a turtle that wears a backpack and carries a walking stick
Scuzz, a guitar-playing rat
Speaker, a black computer speaker
Will, a cartoon of William Shakespeare
The Dot, a red ball
Baudelaire, a gargoyle from a gothic cathedral
Friendly Interfaces
3D metaphors based on familiar places
(e.g. living rooms)
Agents in the guise of pets (e.g. bunny,
dog) were included to talk to the user
Make users feel more at ease and
comfortable
User-created Expressiveness
Users have created emoticons - compensate for
lack of expressiveness in text communication:
Happy :)
Sad :<
Sick :X
Mad >:
Very angry >:-(
Also use of icons and shorthand in text and
instant messaging has emotional connotations,
e.g.
I 12 CU 2NITE
User Frustration
rational aspect
the system does not do what the user wants it to do
tolerable if it is (more or less) expected
emotional aspect
the user is upset about this
mismatch with the mental model the user has
disregard of the user’s perspective by the designer
may affect the system as a whole
even if only a small part causes the frustration
may be difficult to recover from
Exercise: My Most Frustrating
Computer Interaction
identify an interaction with a computer
system that really frustrates you
what are the causes for your frustration:
inability to do something
unexpected outcome
“the idiots who wrote the program”
try to contrast this with an example where
the system does not work for you, but it is
not frustrating for you
Causes for User frustration
Many causes:
When an application doesn’t work properly or crashes
When a system doesn’t do what the user wants it to do
When a user’s expectations are not met
When a system does not provide sufficient information to enable
the user to know what to do
When error messages pop up that are vague, obtuse or
condemning
When the appearance of an interface is garish, noisy, gimmicky
or patronizing
Error Messages
“The application Word Wonder has unexpectedly quit due to a type 2
error.”
Why not instead:
“the application has expectedly quit due to poor coding in the operating
system”
Shneiderman’s guidelines for error messages include:
avoid using terms like FATAL, INVALID, BAD
Audio warnings
Avoid UPPERCASE and long code numbers
Messages should be precise rather than vague
Provide context-sensitive help
Website Error Message
More Helpful Error Message
“The requested page /helpme is not available on the web
server.
If you followed a link or bookmark to get to this page,
please let us know, so that we can fix the problem.
Please include the URL of the referring page as well as
the URL of the missing page.
Otherwise check that you have typed the address of the
web page correctly.
The Web site you seek
Cannot be located, but
Countless more exist.”
Should Computers Say They’re
Sorry?
Reeves and Naas (1996) argue that computers should
be made to apologize
Should emulate human etiquette
Would users be as forgiving of computers saying sorry
as people are of each other when saying sorry?
How sincere would they think the computer was being?
For example, after a system crash:
“I’m really sorry I crashed. I’ll try not to do it again”
How else should computers communicate with users?
Anthropomorphism
Attributing human-like qualities to
inanimate objects (e.g. cars, computers)
Well known phenomenon in advertising
Dancing butter, drinks, breakfast cereals
Much exploited in human-computer
interaction
Make user experience more enjoyable, more
motivating, make people feel at ease, reduce
anxiety
Which Do You Prefer?
1. As a welcome message
“Hello Chris! Nice to see you again.
Welcome back. Now what were we doing
last time? Oh yes, exercise 5. Let’s start
again.”
“User 24, commence exercise 5.”
Which Do You Prefer?
2. Feedback when get something wrong
1. “Now Chris, that’s not right. You can do
better than that. Try again.”
2. “Incorrect. Try again.”
Is there a difference as to what you
prefer depending on type of message?
Why?
Evidence to Support
Anthropomorphism
Reeves and Naas (1996) found that
computers that flatter and praise users in
education software programs -> positive
impact on them
“Your question makes an important and
useful distinction. Great job!”
Students were more willing to continue
with exercises with this kind of feedback
Criticism of Anthropomorphism
Deceptive, make people feel anxious, inferior or stupid
People tend not to like screen characters that wave their
fingers at the user & say:
Now Chris, that’s not right. You can do better than
that. Try again.”
Many prefer the more impersonal:
“Incorrect. Try again.”
Studies have shown that personalized feedback is
considered to be less honest and makes users feel less
responsible for their actions (e.g. Quintanar, 1982)
Virtual Characters
Increasingly appearing on our screens
Web, characters in videogames, learning companions,
wizards, newsreaders, popstars
Provides a persona that is welcoming, has
personality and makes user feel involved with
them
Virtual Characters in Video Games
interaction:
if you know that an entity in the game is
virtual, do you interact with it differently?
emotion:
do virtual characters sometimes generate
strong emotions?
Disadvantages
Lead people into false sense of belief,
enticing them to confide personal secrets
with chatterbots (e.g. Alice)
Annoying and frustrating
E.g. Clippy
Not trustworthy
virtual e-commerce assistants?
Virtual Characters: Agents
Can be classified in terms of the degree of
anthropomorphism they exhibit:
•
•
•
•
Synthetic characters
animated agents
emotional agents
embodied conversational agents
(i)Synthetic Characters -Silas the
Dog
autonomous, with internal states and able to
respond to external events
(Blumberg, 1996 - MIT)
(ii) Animated Agents
Play a collaborative role at the interface
Often cartoon-like
e.g. Herman the bug
(Lester et al, 1997
Intellimedia)
flies into plants
& explains things
on-the-fly & gives
advice to students
(iii) Emotional Agents
Pre-defined personality and set of
emotions that user can change
The Woggles, Bates, 1994
(iv) Embodied Conversational
Agents
Rea, real-estate agent,
showing user
an apartment
Human-like body
Uses gesture, non-verbal
communication (facial
expressions, winks)
while talking
Sophisticated AI
techniques used to
enable this form of interaction
Cassell, 2000, MIT
Conversation with Rea
Mike approaches screen and Rea turns to face him and says:
Hello. How can I help you?
Mike: I’m looking to buy a place near MIT.
Rea nods, indicating she is following.
Rea: I have a house to show you. (picture of a house appears on the
screen)
Rea: it is in Somerville.
Mike: Tell me about it.
Rea looks up and away while she plans what to say.
Rea: It’s big.
Rea makes an expansive gesture with her hands.
Mike brings his hands up as if to speak, so Rea does not continue,
waiting for him to speak.
Mike: Tell me more about it.
Rea: Sure thing. It has a nice garden...
Believable Agents
Believability refers to the extent to which
users come to believe an agent’s
intentions and personality
Appearance is very important
Are simple cartoon-like characters or more realistic
characters, resembling the human form more
believable?
Behaviour is very important
How an agent moves, gestures and refers to objects
on the screen
Exaggeration of facial expressions and gestures to
show underlying emotions (cf animation industry)
Key Points
Affective aspects are concerned with how interactive
systems make people respond in emotional ways
Well-designed interfaces can elicit good feelings in users
Expressive interfaces can provide reassuring feedback
Badly designed interfaces make people angry and
frustrated
Anthropomorphism is increasingly used at the interface,
in the guise of agents and virtual screen characters