Essentials of Evidence-Based Academic Interventions
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Transcript Essentials of Evidence-Based Academic Interventions
November 21, 2013
Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10
Heidi Hahn and Jennie Stumpf
Regions 5 and 7 SLD Trainers
Agenda
Chapter 6 – Spelling
Chapter 7 – Handwriting and Written Expression
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving
Chapter 10 – Relevance of Cognitive Abilities to
Academic Interventions
Please watch for a follow-up survey in your e-mail
Chapter #6 - Spelling
Spelling Development
“Reading requires only recognition, whereas
spelling requires the complete recall of every letter in the
correct sequence.”
Characteristics of children with Spelling Difficulties
Weakness in phonemic awareness
Difficulty understanding spelling rules
Difficulty with word structure and letter patterns
Visual memory problem specific to letters and words
Language Components of
Spelling
Phonology: knowledge of speech sounds
Orthography: knowledge of spelling patterns
Morphology: knowledge of meaning units
Vocabulary: knowledge of word meanings
Regular Words – words that conform to the most common
English spelling patterns and rules
Irregular/Exception Words – one or more elements to do
not conform to the common English spelling patterns (i.e.
sight words)
Developmental Stages
Emergent or Prephonemic – Preschool to Kndg
“Understands that letters communicate meaning and can be written.”
Early Letter Name/Semiphonetic – Kndg. – 2nd Grade
“Child has discovered the alphabetic principle & developed some
knowledge of sound-letter relationships”
Middle to late letter name/phonetic (early 1st – late 2nd gr.)
“Represents both consonant and vowel sounds; usually writes one letter
for each sound.”
Development Stages - Continued
Within word pattern spelling/transitional (1st-4th)
“mastered most diagraphs and consonant blends………”
Syllables and affixes spelling (Upper Elem – MS)
“spelling of multisyllabic words”
Derivational relations spelling (MS – Adulthood)
“Still lack knowledge of word derivations…….focus on the relationships
among word structures, word origins and word meanings”
Analyzing Spelling Errors:
Are the sounds of words in the correct order?
Is there an omittion or addition of certain sounds
from words?
Did they spell the irregular elements of words
correctly?
Are there vowels in every syllable?
Did they spell the homophones correctly?
Did they spell the common affixes correctly?
Do they understand how to form plurals and change
verb tense?
Effective Instruction
Segmenting spoken words into their sounds
Matching the sounds to the letter correspondences
Spelling common orthographic patterns
Learning and practicing common spelling rules
Spelling irregular words with emphasis on the
irregular parts
Adding affixes to words
Spelling different syllable types
Spelling word derivatives
Learning about word origins
Model Instruction:
Word Sorts
Spelling Rules – Page 130
Spelling Tests
Spelling Flow Lists
Individualized accommodations – certain words for
certain students – needs
Spelling irregular words
Multisensory spelling method
**Commercial Spelling programs – p. 134
**Spelling related Web Sites – p. 135
Chapter 6 – Spelling
Any final questions related to spelling?
Chapter 7 – Handwriting and Written
Expression
Writing is a complex task that requires the integration
of multiple cognitive, linguistic and motor abilities
Writing may be the most complex task students are
asked to perform in school because of the integration
of so many different skills
Many students with writing difficulties can formulate
clear, coherent ideas, but they then have trouble
translating these thoughts into written form
Chapter 7 – Handwriting and Written
Expression
Writing involves:
Low level transcription skills
Handwriting, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and
grammar
High level composition skills
Planning, content, organization and revision
It is estimated that 60% of medication errors result
from illegible handwriting or transcription errors
Chapter 7 – Handwriting
Handwriting
While technology certainly is used for a large portion of
writing, the need for legible handwriting has not
disappeared
There has been a decreasing emphasis on handwriting
instruction and competence over the past several decades
Only 12% of teachers have even taken a course in how to
teach handwriting
Hand writing has been identified as an important predictor
of the quality of written expression
Fluent, automatic handwriting has been linked to the
quality of compositions
Chapter 7 – Handwriting
If a student has to think about letter formation and
production, the quality of the written expression will
suffer because cognitive resources are focused on how
to write rather than what to write
Children in Kindergarten – Fourth grade think and
write at the same time. Only later do students begin
thinking about their writing apart from their
handwriting
Chapter 7 – Handwriting
Characteristics of Students Struggling with Handwriting
Poor motor abilities or coordination problems
Difficulty with memory of letter forms
Weakness in orthographic processing (coding)
Store and retrieve sound-symbol associations
Poor handwriting is an early warning sign of students at
risk for problems with written expression
Automatic letter writing has been found to be the best
predictor of composition length and quality
Chapter 7 – Handwriting
Effective Handwriting Instruction
Formal handwriting instruction is most effective
Lessons should be short, 5 to 10 minutes, and followed
by an opportunity to use handwriting in a meaningful
manner
Teach:
Letter formation (page 144)
Keyboarding and Technology (page145)
Chapter 7 – Handwriting
Formation
Writing Aids
Pencil grip or weight
Raised-line paper
Commercial Writing Programs
Handwriting Without Tears
Developmentally based, flexible curriculum for teaching
handwriting to children in preschool through grade 5
Chapter 7 – Handwriting
Keyboarding and Technology
Keyboarding skills should be taught to children
beginning in first grade, especially those children who
struggle with handwriting
Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing
Speech Recognition Software
Dragon Naturally Speaking (translates speech into text)
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Writing is often called the “Neglected R” because it ahs
not received the same intensity of focus from
researchers, educators, or legislators as reading or
math
It is estimated that states spend one quarter of a billion
dollars annually to remediate employees’ writing
difficulties
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Characteristics of Students Struggling with Written
Expression
Lack awareness of what good writing is and do not know
how to produce it
Lack knowledge of text structures (genre) and content
Do not plan before or during writing
Do not monitor their own performance
Show poor attention and concentration
Limited language skills (vocabulary, syntax,
morphology)
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Characteristics of Students Struggling with Written
Expression continued:
Students struggling in writing have coexisting
difficulties in other areas
Writing problems are frequently present in students with
attention problems, possibly due to the number of elements
that must be integrated and attended to when writing
Students with reading difficulties often exhibit difficulties in
writing because of the common perceptual and linguistic
demands required of both tasks
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Often times a student’s writing difficulties are not
noticed until about fourth grade because it is at this
point that writing demands increase from minimal
level (providing single word responses or filling in
blanks) to higher-level demands (composing)
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Effective Written Expression Instruction
The quality of instruction students receive has a major
impact on writing achievement
Teach the Writing Process (page 150 – 151)
Prewriting
Writing/Drafting
Revision
Editing
Publishing
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Effective Written Expression Instruction
Three Effective Elements for Improving Written
Expression (page 151 – 152)
Use a framework of planning, writing, and revising
Explicitly teach critical steps in the writing process
Provide relevant feedback on what is taught
Ten Recommendations for Improving Writing (page 153)
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Effective Written Expression Instruction
Strategy Instruction
Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) (page 153 – 154)
A writing strategy approached that is a supplemental method
designed to help students learn, use, and adopt the strategies
of a skilled writer
Build Writing Vocabulary
Teach Text Structures
Narrative Writing
Expository Writing
Teach Revising and Editing Strategies (page 157 – 160)
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Effective Written Expression Instruction
Technology (page 161)
Draft: Builder, Co-Writer, Write: Outloud, Read: Outloud
Writing Workshop
Focuses on the process of writing more than the end product
High quality workshops should include:
Explicit modeling
Frequent conferencing
High Expectations
Flexibility
Cooperative learning
Self-regulation
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Effective Written Expression Instruction
Writing portfolio (page 162)
Writing frames (page 162)
Graphic organizers (page 162)
Writing Prompts (page 163)
Provide Models (page 163)
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Example Accommodations of Instructional Materials
Highlight key words or phrases
Simplify language used in writing prompts
Use graphic organizers and procedural checklists
Display mnemonic strategies in the classroom so
students can access these cutes
Develop individual spelling lists and have students keep
personal dictionaries of troublesome words
Provide (as needed) pencil grips, raised or colored line
paper, personal alphabet strips, and paper positioning
marks on a student’s desk
Chapter 7 –Written Expression
Example Modifications of Task Demands
Increase time to complete tasks
Decrease length or complexity of writing assignment
Use text frames (partially completed text)
Reduce or eliminate copying tasks
Permit use of dictation or a scribe
Permit use of a word processor
Use technology supports (spell checker, voice
recognition, semantic mapping, outline software)
Allow other means of demonstrating assignment (oral
versus written)
Chapter 7 –Handwriting and Written
Expression
Summary
Writing is a highly complex task that is susceptible to
difficulties in a multitude of areas
Students must be proficient and automatic with the lowlevel foundational skills of handwriting and spelling in order
to build fluency and free cognitive resources for the higherlevel tasks of planning, composing, and revising
The most effective writing instruction is explicit instruction
When combined with explicit strategy instruction, students
experience more success in developing the writing skills needed to
clearly convey their ideas, feelings, and their knowledge
Chapter 7 – Handwriting and
Written Expression
Any final questions related to handwriting and written
expression?
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Difficulties with math have received less attention
from researchers and educators than have difficulties
with reading
Between 5 and 8% of school-age children have
significant problems with math
More than 60% of students identified as having a
learning disability in reading are also achieving below
grade level in math
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Difficulties with math may result from numerous
sources, including impairments in:
Working memory
Processing Speed
Language
Attention
Sequencing
Spatial skills
Reasoning
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
A student’s success in math reflects the efficacy of the
instruction and can be negatively impacted by:
Poor teaching
The design and materials of the curriculum
**Due to the cumulative nature of math with one skill
building on another, poor instruction at any level may
impede future success
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Special education training programs and professional
development opportunities focus disproportionally on
the delivery of reading rather than math interventions
Both special and general educators take few courses in
methods for teaching math and are often inadequately
prepared to teach math skills, particularly at the
secondary level
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Some curriculum designs can be especially troublesome for
students that struggle with math
Spiraling curriculums
Introduces a number of important concepts and then returns to those
concepts in successive years
In one year, the time devoted to a concept may be too limited for
students that do not learn readily
Teaching to mastery
Doesn’t allow ample opportunities to practice “mastered” skills so it
may leave to a false conclusion about the student’s true skill level
Frequently, a struggling student’s performance is uneven – the student
demonstrates proficiency one day but not the next
Focusing on procedures versus understanding
Focus on learning the algorithms instead of developing concept
understanding
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Characteristics of Individuals Struggling with Basic Math Skills
Difficulty storing and retrieving basic math facts
Cognitive problems
Long term memory
Memory span
Working memory
Attention
Processing speed
Weaknesses in oral language abilities
Students who struggle with basic math computations also have
difficulty completing math problems that involve multiple
steps
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Number Sense
The child’s fluidity and flexibility with numbers, as well as
understanding of what numbers mean and their
relationships to others
Foundational skill that serves as a prerequisite for math
success
Usually develops during the preschool years and most
children have an initial understanding in place by the age
of 4 or 5
No one best way to teach
Use of problem-centered curriculum that emphasizes student
interactions and self-generated solutions has shown to be
effective
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Math Facts and Fluency
Drill and practice approaches are frequently
recommended for helping students master math facts
As children work on building automaticity of facts, they
should continue to receive instruction in more complex
computation and problem solving.
Give them supports such a pocket sized fact chart to reference
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Effective Instruction (page 174 – 180)
Direct, explicit instruction with cumulative review
Most effective instructional approach for teaching basic or
isolated skills
Demonstration or modeling by the teacher, followed by guided
practice with immediate feedback, and then independent
practice to master the skill
Strategy instruction
Strategies need to be taught and practiced in a clear, explicit
manner
Mnemonics, visual images, flashcards, rhymes, etc.
Practice
Board games, computer-assisted instruction, self-correcting
materials, cover-copy-compare,
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Concrete Representations
Illustrate math concepts with concrete objects or manipulatives
Children can develop mental images of math concepts
Can be helpful at any age, especially when introducing a new math
concept
Concrete-Representational-Abstract (CRA)
Instruction begins at the concrete level, transitions to a semi concrete or
representational level (pictures) and then evolves to the abstract level
(numerals, symbols)
Students may require up to seven lessons at the concrete and semi
concrete levels before being able to handle abstract-level problems
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Explicit Timings
1 minute timings
Provide students with a worksheet of problems that cannot be
completed within 1 minute
Have students complete as many problems as they can within
the minute
Ask students to stop after 1 minute
Score the sheet by counting the number of correct and
incorrect digits written
Plot the total number of correct digits on a graph
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Other effective teaching methods (pages 185 – 190)
Reciprocal Peer Tutoring
Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies and Cross-Age
Tutoring
Commercial Products
Number Worlds
PALS Math
TouchMath
Structural Arithmetic
Software and Web-based Resources
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Error Analysis
One of the most effective ways to help resolve a student’s
errors on basic math computation
Analyze any mistakes on standardized tests, classroom
exams, school papers, and homework assignments
Determine the reasons why a student missed a certain
problem
Students will continue to make the same types of errors
unless intervention occurs
If you can’t figure out why a student missed a problem, ask
the student to explain step-by-step what they were doing to
solve the problem
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Monitor Student Progress
Helps students become more aware of their growth
Provides teachers with valuable information about the
effectiveness of their instruction and whether or not
adjustments are needed
Having students chart their own progress not only
motivates the students, but it also frees the teacher from
this task
Chapter 8 – Basic Math Skills
Any final questions related to basic math skills?
Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving
Math is one of the most challenging academic areas
because it is comprised of numerous domains that
continue to increase in complexity
Almost 1/5 of the U.S. population experiences high
levels of math anxiety
Research has found that individuals struggling with
math often use immature behaviors, such as counting
on their fingers
Over 30% of individuals diagnosed with ADHD are
also diagnosed with math learning disabilities
Due to working memory and executive function
problems
Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving
Characteristics of Individuals Struggling with Math
Problem Solving
No clear research on what the characteristics are for
students struggling in math problem solving
May include:
Processing speech
Short-term memory
Working memory
Oral language abilities
Race and poverty
Executive functions (planning, inhibiting responses, shifting
attention, and monitoring strategies)
Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving
Although problem solving is recognized as a critical
element of mathematics by researchers and national
organizations, the emphasis in classrooms, especially
special education classrooms, continues to be on
memorization of facts and computational procedures.
Little time is spent on developing the conceptual and
procedural knowledge and strategies necessary for
problem solving
Problems
Instructional time
Textbooks
Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving
Teachers state that word problems are the most
problematic math problems for students
Students struggle with following the multiple steps of the
problem and understanding exactly what the problem is
asking them to do
Effective problem solving requires that an individual can:
Represent the problem accurately
Visualize the elements of the problem
Understand the relationships among numbers
Use self-regulating
Understand the meaning of the language and vocabulary
Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving
10 Effective Instructional Practices that Improve Math
Achievement
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Opportunity to learn: provide ample math exposure and
practice
Focus on meaning: teach important math ideas
Problem solving: build conceptual understanding to
improve procedural knowledge
Opportunities to invent and practice: provide time for
student to invent ways of solving problems and to apply
skills being learned
Openness to student solutions and student interactions:
use understanding of how students construct knowledge
Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving
10 Effective Instructional Practices that Improve Math
Achievement
6. Small-group learning: provide cooperative learning
activities
7. Whole-class discussions: encourage sharing of various
student solutions
8. Focus on number sense: help students determine
reasonableness of solutions
9. Use of concrete materials: provide manipulatives to
increase student achievement
10. Use of calculators: encourage the use of technology to
increase student achievement and improve attitude
Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving
Effective Teaching Methods (page 204 – 217)
Direct/Explicit Instruction
Cueing, modeling, verbal rehearsal, and feedback
Strategy Instruction
Self-instruction, self-questioning, self-checking
Problem-Solving strategies (page 207)
Schema-Based Strategy Instruction
Teaches procedural and conceptual understanding related to
mathematical word problem solving
Concrete-Representational-abstract (CRA)
Instruction begins at the concrete level, transitions to a semi
concrete or representational level (pictures) and then evolves to
the abstract level (numerals, symbols)
Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving
Effective Teaching Methods (page 204 – 217)
Demonstration Plus Permanent Model
Used to teach long division
The teacher first demonstrates the steps and then this becomes
a permanent model to help students solve similar problems
Mnemonic Strategies (page 210 – 211)
STAR (steps to solve word problems)
DRAW (used to solve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division problems)
ORDER (to remember which operation should be solved first)
EQUAL (greater than, less than, and equal to)
Please Excused My Dear Aunt sally (executive operations)
Chapter 9 – Math Problem Solving
Effective Teaching Methods (page 204 – 217)
Technology
Calculators, videos, computers and web-based activities
Commercial Products **
Everyday Math
I CAN Learn Pre-Algebra and Algebra (www.icanlearn.com)
Saxon Middle School math
Classworks
**These were determined to have potentially positive effects
on math achievement for students
Summary – Math Disabilities
Existing research in mathematics suggests that
instructional practices are more important and
effective in teaching math than any curricula
A direct/explicit instructional approach is most
effective for teaching basic math skills.
Strategy instruction is most effective for improving
students’ math problem solving skills
Chapter 10 – The Relevance of Cognitive
Abilities to Academic Interventions
LOTS of great information – worth
reading the entire chapter
Final Thoughts
Questions?
Comments?
Follow-Up Survey in an e-mail sent by Jennie. By
completing the survey you will receive your CEU’s
Contact Information
Heidi Hahn: [email protected]
Jennie Stumpf: [email protected]
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