Transcript Document

Contrastive Analysis
Introduction
Outline

What is Contrastive Analysis/Study/Linguistics?

What is the psychological basis of CA?

What procedures should we adopt while
conducting CA?

What do we contrast / compare?
I Introduction to Contrastive Analysis

What is Contrastive Analysis?

Contrastive analysis is a branch of linguistics.

Contrastive Analysis is a linguistic enterprise aimed at
producing inverted (i.e. contrastive, not comparative) twovalued typologies (a CA is always concerned with a pair of
languages), and founded on the assumption that languages
can be compared (Carl James,1983).

对比语言学不同于比较语言学。比较语言学是历时性研究，它要追溯
语言之间的谱系关系；对比分析是共时性研究，它要揭示语言之间的
一致性和分歧性－－尤其是分歧性。但是为了说明问题，对比分析有
时也不能不谈辞源和语言的某些历史演变，这是不难理解的（王宗炎)

指明事物的异同所在不难，追究它们何以有异同就不那么容易了，而
这恰恰是对比研究的最终目的。（吕叔湘）
Historical study of
intralanguage
II
I
Diachronic _________________ Synchronic
involves two languages
III
IV
1. Typological
one language
study of L
called comparative
interlanguage
2. Linguistic universals
3. Contrastive Analysis
Theoretical
Applied

Everything that relates to the static side of our science is
synchronic; everything that has to do with evolution is
diachronic (De Saussure ).

What is the difference between comparative linguistics and
contrastive linguistics?

Generally speaking, in the field of linguistics, comparative
linguistics is intended to 1) make a diachronic study of
some related languages so as to 2) create a parent
language or ancestor language.

Conversely, contrastive linguistics involves a synchronic
study of two unrelated languages so as to find out the
dissimilarities in phonetic, grammatical and rhetoric aspects.

The former aims mainly at the homogeneity while the latter
mainly at the heterogeneity.

对比语言学是共时的研究。这就是说，我们所要研究的对象，是语言
在某一发展阶段的状态，而不是语言的演变。这将对比语言学与历史
比较语言学和语言发展史的研究区别开来。（许余龙）
Comparative study
1. make a diachronic study;
2. the subjects of comparison are
limited to its parent language;
3. the study aims at the homogeneity
of the languages compared;
4. the languages compared are
not limited;
5. it is intended to penetrate and
make clear the laws of the historical
development;
Contrastive study
1. make a synchronic study;
2. the subjects of comparison may
be its parent or not parent language;
3. the study aims at the heterogeneity
of the languages compared;
4. the languages compared are
limited to two, generally speaking;
5. provide a practical use in language
teaching; dictionary compiling;
translation; international
communication.
II What is the psychological basis of CA

Why do we have to talk about psychology while
conducting CA?
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What is the relationship between psychology and
CA?

According to Carl James, no single branch of ‘applied
linguistics’ relies exclusively on ‘pure’ linguistics. CA relies
very strongly on psychology.

Since linguistics is concerned with formal properties of
language and not directly with learning, which is a
psychological matter, and since CA is concerned with L2
learning, it needs a psychological component.

The ‘fundamental assumption’ of behaviorist learning
theories and CA is transfer.
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The study of transfer involves the study of errors (negative
transfer), and facilitation (positive transfer).
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Transfer is the effect of one language on the learning of
another.
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The CAH as formulated by Lado was based on the following
assumption:
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Robert Lado says,
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“…individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings, and
the distribution of forms and meanings of their native
language and culture to the foreign language and culture—
both productively when attempting to speak the language
and to act in the culture, and receptively when attempting
to grasp and understand the language and the culture as
practiced by natives.”

According to Charles C. Fries,
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“…the student who comes into contact with a foreign
language will find some features of it quite easy and others
extremely difficult. Those elements that are similar to his
native language will be simple for him, and those elements
that are different will be difficult.”
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Generally speaking, transfer can be divided into two types,
positive transfer and negative transfer.
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Positive transfer is transfer which makes learning easier,
and may occur when both the native language and the
target language have the same form.

He comes from Shanghai.
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Negative transfer, also known as interference, is the
use of a native-language pattern or rule which leads to an
error or inappropriate form in the target language.

He come from Shanghai.
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

In speech and writing there are types of errors especially
likely to arise from similarities and differences in the native
and target languages:
Words
一般说来，思想与感情的交流是以口头语言的形式进行的。

Generally speaking, ideas and emotions are expressed in
oral language / orally.

Generally, the expression of thoughts and feelings has been
in the form of oral speech.


Structures
我三岁时爸爸就去世了，所以我记不得他的样子。

When I was three, my father died. So I do not remember
him.
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I do not remember my father who died when I was three.
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你看不见你自己，你所看见的只是你的影子。
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You do not see yourself, but your shadow.
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What you are you do not see, what you see is your shadow.
III Procedures of conducting CA

The procedures followed involve:
1) description (i.e. a formal description of the two
languages was made such as distinctive features of
each)
2) selection (i.e. certain areas or items of the two
languages were chosen for detailed comparison such as
phonology, syntax and lexicon)

The lively chat was punctuated by shouts and laughters.
The lively chat was punctuated by shouts and bursts of
laughter.
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3) comparison (i.e. the identification of areas of difference
and similarity)
Differences between Chinese and English:
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As for the same thing, Chinese and English give a
different name because of their different focus.
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Generally, black is equivalent to “黑”，and red is to “红”.
But black tea is what Chinese call “红茶”. Why?
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Chinese and English are quite different for what a color
stands for.
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“青睐” in Chinese means “like” and “favor” while greeneyed in English means “jealous”.
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“眼红” in Chinese is equivalent to green-eyed in English.
Then, what does “red-eyed flight” mean?
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Similarities in Chinese and English:
There are some similarities in syntax, look at the following
examples:
一朝被蛇咬，三年怕井绳。
Once bitten, twice shy.
眼不见，心不烦。
Out of sight, out of mind.
4) prediction (i.e. determining which areas were likely to
cause errors) which is always considered as a failure of
doing.

In that moment, it was six.
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What we are going to do next is data collection. There are
two types of data: 1) corpus-based data 2) introspective
data

Corpus-based data is a collection of materials that has been
made for a particular purpose, such as a set of textbooks
which are being analyzed and compared or a sample of
sentences or utterances which are being analyzed for their
linguistic features.

Introspective data is a kind of data involving the subject
reflecting the kinds of decisions they make and the kinds of
strategies they use while carrying out a task, and reporting
them as they occur.
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This kind of data is usually considered quite subjective.
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Introspective data is based on intuition to make judgment,
the judgment of sentimentality.
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我差点摔倒了。我差点没摔倒。
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我差点吃饱了。我差点没吃饱。
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Personal judgment may not always be reliable, but this
procedure can not be abandoned because it is very
convenient. So that is why everybody uses it.

You can not mix the two data. You can only use one, either
corpus-data or introspective.
IV What do we contrast or compare?

Can we improve our linguistic competence without
systematically comparing our mother tongue and the target
language?
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First, we must understand the meaning of a word while
learning a foreign language.
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Second, we must learn its grammar while learning a foreign
language.
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Third, we should also be familiar with other aspects of
language, such as semantics and pragmatics.
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Finally, we should know the target culture while learning a
foreign language.
4.1 Contrastive analysis on lexical level

As Swedish linguist Ferdinand de Saussure says, “Language
is a system of mutually dependent lexical item, whose
value can only be acquired from other lexical items. For
example, the value of the word “bachelor” can only be
generated from spinster, woman, and husband.”
Take collocation as examples.

Understanding a word depends on whether you know a
word by the company it keeps.

疯狂的侵略
frenzied aggression
flagrant or blatant aggression
批判师道尊严
to criticize the dignity of a teacher
to criticize the absolute authority of a teacher
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There are some collocations that are taken for granted.
Now take “salary” as an example:
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a big / high salary / fat salary
a comfortable salary / a handsome salary
low salaries / a small salary
a modest salary
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
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There are quite a few collocations in English that are easy
to make people get trapped, making erroneous explanation.

common criminal
hard labor
a hit at sb.
common informer
be in labor
a one-horse town
4.2 Contrastive analysis on syntactic level
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Humboldt, a German linguist, says that any sentence in any
language has two levels: one is logic and the other is
grammar. Chinese language has much more coincidence in
logic and grammar and it is more based on logic.

There are many differences between Chinese and English in
syntax. They are as follows:

hypotactic vs. paratactic, (形合对意合）
grammatical principle vs. semantic principle,
stratificational structure vs. iconic structure,
subordination vs. coordination,
grammatical word order vs. pragmatic word order
subject vs. topic / theme
pro-drop vs. non-pro-drop
left branching vs. right branching
definiteness vs. vagueness




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Take pro-drop and non-pro-drop as an example,
Question: [ ] 开门了吗？
Answer: [ ] 开了 [ ]。
发现了错误，一定要改正。
Wrongs must be righted when they are discovered.
看树看果实，看人看作为。
A tree is known by its fruit, and a man is known by his
action.


Since English is a sort of analytical and grammatical
language, it is more strict, stringent and definite even in
agentless passive sentences. However, Chinese is quite
different from English. It is vague, and depends heavily on
context and semantics rather than on grammar.
A: 桌子哪去了？
B: 爷爷抬走了。
A: 爷爷哪去了？
B: 爷爷抬走了。
Since Chinese has no morphology, it is necessary for
English learners of L2 Chinese to have the knowledge of
pragmatics when understanding Chinese grammar.
Otherwise, it will cause ambiguity or misunderstanding in
meaning.
4.3 CA on Macroscopic Level

The difference between microscopic CA and macroscopic CA
is that microscopic CA focuses on phonology, lexis,
grammar, etc. while macroscopic CA focuses on text, and
discourse.

What is text?

Text is not limited by its form; it can be spoken or written
or even a prose or poem. In a word, text is a semantic unit
of expressing ideas.

Generally, English and Chinese appear to have the logical
characteristics of direct structure and spiral structure
respectively. This is because English focuses on synthetic
way of thinking while Chinese on analytical one.

总体看来，英汉语篇的确分别呈现直线形与螺旋形的逻辑特征。这从
根本上讲是中西方各自重综合与重分析的思维习惯的表现。

There were few earthly things more beautiful than a
university, said Masefield. He did not refer to spires and
towers, campus greens and ivied walls. He admired the
splendid beauty of the university, because it was a place
where those who hate ignorance may strive to learn, and
those who know the truth may strive to make others see.

世间没有什么事物比大学更美好的，梅斯菲尔德写道。他不是指高耸
的塔尖、巍峨的高楼，也不是指绿树成荫的校园和爬满了常春藤的围
墙。他赞美大学辉煌的美是因为那是痛恨愚昧的人孜孜求知之所，领
悟真理的人诲人不倦之处。

But I would like to do the same with the acclaim too, by
using this moment as a pinnacle from which I might be
listened to by the young men and women already dedicated
to the same anguish and travail, among whom is already
that one who will some day stand here where I am standing.

对于人们给予我的赞扬，我也想做出同样的回报：借此国际学界的最
高盛会，请业已献身于同样艰苦劳作的男女青年听我说几句，因为在
他们中间，将来站在我现在所站的讲台上的人已经产生了。

英汉语篇连接成分的不同之处归结起来主要有两个方面，即显性与隐
性的差异以及断句方式不同所引起的差异。

……我不习惯与朋友合作。我觉得还是自己独立的想写什么就写点什
么。写好写坏写成写不成，都由自己担着。一说合作，心里上的压力
就非常大。
（有令峻：《放弃与超脱》）

对于清洁成癖的人，天下没有一样东西是不脏的；同样，俗的东
西多少也跟一个人的风雅的程度成为正比例……
(钱钟书：《论俗气》）
4.4 Contrastive Rhetoric

Contrastive rhetoric is an area of research in second
language acquisition that identifies problems in composition
encountered by second language writers and, by referring
to the rhetorical strategies of the first language, attempts
to explain them.

Contrastive rhetoric is the study of how a person’s first
language and culture influences his or her writing in a
second language.

Kaplan’s pioneering study in 1966 analyzed the
organization of paragraphs in ESL student essays, claiming
that not only spoken language but also logic and rhetoric
are culture specific.
Contrast between Chinese and English

Andy Kirkpatrick (1996) analyzed about forty letters written
by Chinese ESL students, finding that cultural differences
caused the differences of language use. (Look at your
handouts)

From language point of view, westerners will put the
content of the requirement first and then reasons while
Chinese put the reasons first and then the content.



Dear Radio Australia,
I would be very grateful if you would be kind enough to
send me teaching materials for your excellent English
language teaching programs. I am learning English from
your programs but am finding it difficult without the
materials.
I would also be very grateful if you would be kind enough
to send me a Radio Australia calendar.
(By Kirkpatrick)
In summary, contrastive rhetoric studies have discovered
differences between Chinese and English writing. These
differences are explained by a number of sociopolitical and
cultural reasons.
4.5 CA on Pragmatic Level

What is pragmatics?

Pragmatics is the study of language use and linguistic
communication. (Akmajian, 1979)

Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how utterances
have meanings in situations. (Leech, 1983)

Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as
communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by
a listener (or reader). (Yule, 1996)

Summing up, we can now further specify pragmatics as a
general cognitive, social, and cultural perspective on
linguistic phenomena in relation to their usage in forms of
behavior.

Shakespeare takes up the bottom shelf.

We are going to see Shakespeare in London.

I hated Shakespeare at school.
1. A: Where’s my box of chocolates?
B: I was feeling hungry.
2. A: Where’s my box of chocolates?
B: I’ve got a train to catch.
3. A: Where’s my box of chocolates?
B: Where’s your diet sheet?
4. A: Where’s my box of chocolates?
B: The children were in your room this morning.

Most of our misunderstandings of other people are not due
to any inability to hear them or to parse their sentences or
to understand their words.

A far more important source of difficulty in communication
is that we so often fail to understand a speaker’s intention.
(Miller, 1974)

The term “pragmatic failure” means the inability to
understand “what is meant by what is said”.

Pragmatic failure is an area of cross-cultural communication
breakdown.

I was sorry to hear that your Grandma killed herself.

I was sorry to hear that your Grandma tripped over the cat,
cart wheeled down the stairs and brained herself on the
electricity meter.

The above examples show that the pragmatic failure is
shown in the speaker’s inappropriate way of speaking, that
is, the degree of politeness.

Using polite usage to express some impolite proposition will
lose appropriateness, which is pragmatic failure.

I wonder if I might respectfully request you to stop picking
your nose.

I wonder if I might ask you about your promise to leave me
alone.

On the contrary, the linguistic form may not be polite, but
the content of proposition is sincere and does good to the
other party, it cannot be pragmatic failure.

Do have another drink.
Pragmatic Transfer

Pragmatic failure may not only arise from the identifiable
sources such as those mentioned above (teaching-induced
errors”) but also from “pragmatic transfer.

Influence from learners’ native language and culture on
their interlanguage pragmatic knowledge and performance
has been amply documented.

You haven’t changed much.

Dr. Smith, your lecture was such an attractive one that I’d
like to listen to you for another three hours.
Situation: A young man helps an elderly lady to carry her
heavy luggage back to her residence.

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Participants: one Chinese and one English
Lady: Thank you very much.
Man: This is my duty.




Participants: two English native speakers
Lady: Thank you very much.
Man: That’s nothing.
The Chinese way of response to the offering of tea is quite
different from the British way.
Situation: A Chinese visits his / her colleague’s home.


Host: 请坐，我去沏茶。 (Would you like some tea?)
Guest: 我不喝，别麻烦了。(No, thanks. Or: Yes, please)