Transcript Document

9 February
Define these words:
Evolution
Microevolution (you may use your phone)
Macroevolution (you may use your phone)
Can you answer this question?
What did we learn about genetics in relation to alleles, genes, polygenetic
inheritance, and phenotype?
The Program for International Student Assessment (65 countries surveyed 15
year-old students)
USA is 30th in mathematics
23rd in science
20th in reading
The U.S. was slotted between the Slovak Republic and Lithuania in the overall
results, two spots behind Russia.
Huffington post reports that
A 2009 study found that U.S. students ranked 25th among 34 countries in math
and science,
Tongue Rolling
Widow's Peak
Chin fissure
Attached earlobes
KEY CONCEPT
There were theories of biological and geologic
change before Darwin.
Charles Darwin
Born: February 12, 1809
Died: April 19, 1882
Published the Origin of Species in 1859
Studied plant hormones, breeding variation in
pigeons and many other things.
Alfred Russel Wallace
(8 Jan. 1823 – 7 Nov 1913)
Wallace was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, and biologist.
He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through
natural selection; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of
Charles Darwin's writings in 1858. This prompted Darwin to publish his own ideas
in On the Origin of Species. Wallace did extensive fieldwork, first in the Amazon
River basin and then in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal
divide now termed the Wallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago
into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian
origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect Australasia.
He was considered the 19th century's leading expert on the geographical distribution
of animal species and is sometimes called the "father of biogeography". Wallace
was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century and made many
other contributions to the development of evolutionary theory besides being codiscoverer of natural selection. These included the concept of warning colouration
in animals, and the Wallace effect, a hypothesis on how natural selection could
contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against
hybridisation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace
Early scientists proposed ideas about evolution.
• Evolution is the biological change process by which
descendants come to differ from their ancestors.
• A species is a group of organisms that can reproduce
and have fertile offspring.
Evidences of Evolution
• There were many important naturalists in the 18th
century.
– Linnaeus: classification system from kingdom to
species
– Buffon: species shared ancestors rather than
arising separately
– E. Darwin: more-complex forms developed from
less-complex forms
– Lamarck: environmental change leads to use or
disuse of a structure
Theories of geologic change set the stage
for Darwin’s theory.
• There were three theories of geologic change.
– catastrophism
– uniformitarianism
– gradualism
• Uniformitarianism – processes that change the
earth are uniform through time.
• Gradualism – proposed by James Hutton. Change
in landforms happen in small stages over very long
periods of time.
Do pages:
99 and 100 in your Study Guide.
10 February
How can you tell if
microevolution has taken place?
What do you remember from yesterday?
Without opening your book, work with
your neighbor and make a list of at least
four ways microevolution has taken place
Define these words – components of
Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection:
- Define and Give examples of each –
Variation
Non-random mating
Embryology
Homologous structures
Fossils
Biogeography
Vestigial structure
Natural Selection
Darwin’s voyage provided insight on evolution.
In red are the four pillars of Natural Selection
Darwin observed differences among island species.
• Variation is a difference in a physical trait.
– Galápagos tortoises that live in areas with tall plants
have long necks and legs.
– Galápagos finches that live in areas with hard-shelled
nuts have strong beaks.
• An adaptations is a feature that allow an organism to
better survive in its environment.
– Species are able to adapt to their
environment.
– Adaptations can lead to genetic
change in a population.
Spore
cloud
All species are capable of
producing more offspring
(overproduction) than the
environment can support
Descent with Modification
• Darwin never used the word evolution in the first
edition of The Origin of Species
• The phrase descent with modification refers to the
view that all organisms are related through descent
from an ancestor that lived in the remote past …
the unity of life
• In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a
tree with branches representing life’s diversity
• Darwin’s theory meshed well with the hierarchy of
Linnaeus
The following are
Evidences of Evolution
Darwin observed fossil and geologic evidence
supporting an ancient Earth.
• Darwin found fossils of extinct animals that resemble
modern animals.
• Darwin found fossil shells high up in the Andes mountains.
• He saw land move
from underwater
to above sea level
due to an
earthquake.
• Darwin extended
his observations to
the evolution of
organisms.
Evidence for evolution in Darwin’s time came
from several sources.
• Fossils provide evidence of evolution.
• Fossils in older layers are more primitive than
those in the upper layers.
Fossils provide a record of evolution.
• Paleontology is the study of fossils or extinct organisms.
• Paleontology provides evidence to support evolution.
Molecular and genetic evidence support fossil and
anatomical evidence.
• Two closely-related organisms will have similar DNA
sequences.
• Hox genes indicate a very distant common ancestor.
– control the development of specific structures
– found in many organisms
• Protein comparisons, or molecular fingerprinting reveals
similarities among cell types of different organisms.
Evolution unites all fields of biology.
• Scientist from any fields contribute to the understanding
of evolution.
• The basic principles of evolution are used in many
scientific fields.
The study of geographic distribution
provides evidence of evolution.
– island species most closely resemble nearest mainland
species
– populations can show variation from one island to
another
• Embryology provides evidence of evolution.
– identical larvae, different adult body forms
– similar embryos, diverse organisms
Larva
Adult crab
Adult barnacle
• The study of anatomy provides evidence of evolution.
– Homologous structures are similar in structure but
different in function.
– Homologous structures are evidence of a common
ancestor.
Human hand
Mole foot
Bat wing
Structural patterns are clues to the history of a species.
• Vestigial structures are remnants of organs or structures
that had a function in an early ancestor.
• Ostrich wings are examples of vestigial structures.
11 February
Phenotypic change over time is driven by changes in the
environment. Those organisms that survive will pass on
their traits to their offspring, thus influencing future
generations.
To make these predictions we can use the Hardy-Weinberg
equation p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
You have sampled a population in which you know that the percentage of the
homozygous recessive genotype (aa) is 36%. Using that 36%, calculate the
following:
1) The frequency of the "aa" genotype.
2) The frequency of the "a" allele.
3) The frequency of the "A" allele.
4) The frequencies of the genotypes "AA".
5) The frequencies of the genotypes “Aa”
You have sampled a population in which you know that the percentage of the
homozygous recessive genotype (aa) is 36%. Using that 36%, calculate the following:
1) The frequency of the "aa" genotype. Answer: 36%, as given in the problem itself.
2) The frequency of the "a" allele. Answer: The frequency of aa is 36%, which means
that q2 = 0.36, by definition. If q2 = 0.36, then q = 0.6, again by definition. Since q
equals the frequency of the a allele, then the frequency is 60%.
3) The frequency of the "A" allele. Answer: Since q = 0.6, and p + q = 1, then p = 0.4;
the frequency of A is by definition equal to p, so the answer is 40%.
4) The frequencies of the genotypes "AA"." Answer: The frequency of AA is equal to
p2, So, using the information above, the frequency of AA is 16% (i.e. p2 is 0.4 x 0.4 =
0.16).
5) The frequencies of the genotypes “Aa”. The frequency of Aa is equal to 2pq.
Aa is 48% (2pq = 2 x 0.4 x 0.6 = 0.48).
• Genetic variation leads to phenotypic variation.
• Phenotypic variation is necessary for natural selection.
• Genetic variation is stored in a population’s gene pool.
– made up of all alleles in a population
– allele combinations form when organisms have offspring
• Allele frequencies measure genetic variation.
– measures how common allele is in population
– can be calculated for each allele in gene pool
Genetic variation in a population increases the
chance that some individuals will survive.
Where is that variation contained?
Within a population of butterflies, the color brown (B) is dominant over the color
white (b). And, 40% of all butterflies are white. Given this simple information,
which is something that is very likely to be on an exam, calculate the following:
The percentage of butterflies in the population that are heterozygous.
The frequency of homozygous dominant individuals.
The first thing you'll need to do is obtain p and q.
Since white is recessive (bb), and 40% of the butterflies are white, then bb = q2 = 0.4.
To determine q, take the square root of q2which works out to be 0.63
q = 0.63. Since p + q = 1, then p must be 1 - 0.63 = 0.37.
Now then, to answer our questions.
First, what is the percentage of butterflies in the population that are heterozygous?
2pq represents (Bb), so the answer is 2 (0.37) (0.63) = 0.47. 47%
Second, what is the frequency of homozygous dominant individuals? That would be
p2 or (0.37)2 = 0.14.
12 February
Lab 10
Fill out the allele worksheet by interviewing
12 other people.
Calculate the genotypes (AA, Aa, aa) for four
of the traits on the board using the HardyWeinberg equation, you must show your
work. Turn in when completed.
Use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to calculate four (4) frequencies for
all three genotypes
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 and p + q = 1
Tongue Rolling
Widow's Peak - just like Eddie Munster
roll/not
roll
yes/no
L/R interlocking finger - without thinking, clasp your hands together, is L/R or R/L
the right thumb over the left, or vice versa?
Attached earlobes - ask a neighbor or check out the mirror
yes/no
Hitchhiker Thumb - does it bend back at a 90 angle
yes/no
Chin fissure - like actor Michael Douglas
yes/no
Darwin tubercle - little bump on the inside of the ear
yes/no
Pigmented iris - any color but blue
yes/no
Freckles
yes/no
Dimples
yes/no
Curley hair
yes/no
Long eyelashes (> 1cm)
yes/no
Is this a
dominant or
recessive
phenotype
based on class
data?
Genotype
A trait is an abstraction (hair color, eye color, etc.) while the
phenotypes are the observable differences of a given trait.
Phenotype
A trait is eye color, a phenotype is having blue eyes.
TT, Tt
Or tt
17 February
Define:
Speciation –
Convergent evolution –
Coevolution –
Variation –
Analogous structure –
Common ancestor –
Hominid –
Youtube – Bill Nye Evolution
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xIi4RQiZW4
Concepts to look for in the video
Origin of self-replicating molecules
Evidences of evolution (fossils, homology, molecular, biogeography, embryology)
19 February
Additional Evidences of Evolution.
Define these words and use examples to increase your
comprehension:
• Geographic isolation
• Behavioral isolation
• Genetic drift
• Bottleneck effect
• Gene flow
• Adaptive radiation
Next (maybe tomorrow) I will ask you how these
concepts are related to natural selection.
20 February
Do Study Guide Questions
Pages 101 – 108
All questions
Videos on natural selection, Darwin &
Wallace and the diversity of finches in the
Galapagos Islands
24 February
•
•
•
•
•
•
Geographic isolation
Behavioral isolation
Genetic drift
Bottleneck effect
Gene flow
Adaptive radiation
Geographic isolation
Harris’ Antelope Squirrel
Ammospermophilus harrisii
White-tailed Antelope Squirrel
Ammospermophilus leucurus
Behavioral isolation
Blue footed booby
Sula nebouxii
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4MPfTzXEZdY
Genetic Drift
• The smaller a sample, the greater the chance of
deviation from a predicted result
• Genetic drift describes how allele frequencies fluctuate
unpredictably from one generation to the next
• Genetic drift tends to reduce genetic variation through
losses of alleles
Effects of Genetic Drift: A Summary
1. Genetic drift is significant in small populations
2. Genetic drift causes allele frequencies to change at
random
3. Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation
within populations
4. Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become
fixed
Figure 23.12
60
Survival rate (%)
50
Population in which the
surviving females
eventually bred
Central
Eastern
Central
population
NORTH SEA
Eastern
population
Vlieland,
the Netherlands
40
2 km
30
20
10
0
Females born
in central
population
Females born
in eastern
population
Parus major
Genetic drift
• Gene flow can increase the fitness of a population
• Consider, for example, the spread of alleles for
resistance to insecticides
– Insecticides have been used to target mosquitoes that
carry West Nile virus and malaria
– Alleles have evolved in some populations that confer
insecticide resistance to these mosquitoes
– The flow of insecticide resistance alleles into a
population can cause an increase in fitness
Gene flow is the movement of alleles between
populations
• Gene flow: movement
of alleles from one pop.
to another
• Occurs when individuals
join new populations
and reproduce.
• Gene flow keeps
neighboring populations
similar.
• Low gene flow increases
the chance that two
populations will evolve
into different species.
bald eagle migration
Adaptive Radiation
• Adaptive radiations: closely related species
that have recently evolved from a common
ancestor by adapting to different parts of the
environment
• Occurs
– in an environment with few other species
and many resources
– Hawaiian and Galápagos Islands
– Catastrophic event leading to extinction of
other species
Adaptive radiation
The Nature of Species
• Speciation: the process by which new
species arise, either by
– transformation of one species into
another (phyletic speciation),
– or by the splitting of one ancestral
species into two descendant species
25 February
Finish Natural Selection packet
26 February
Lab Exercise
Natural Selection – Evolution Game:
Where only the fit win
Objective – develop a game using the principals of natural selection & evolution.
Your group must develop the ‘rules’ and how the game will be run.
Your grade will be comprised of two parts.
a) Fully developed rules and a logical explanation of how the game would be
played. Those groups that complete this will earn up to 10 points.
b) The group that develops the best game will receive 10 extra credit points.
1) Develop groups
2) The rules and procedures you develop must include the concepts of “Genetic
Drift”, “Gene Flow” and “Mutations”.
3) Other concepts that you can incorporate into your game are: Bottleneck effect,
adaptive radiation, behavioral isolation, geological isolation, micro and/or
macroevolution, and vestigial structures.
4) You will present your game to the class.
Natural selection acts on distributions of traits.
• A normal distribution graphs as a bell-shaped curve.
– highest frequency near
mean value
– frequencies decrease
toward each extreme
value
• Traits not undergoing
natural selection have a
normal distribution.
• Natural selection can take one of three
paths.
– Directional selection favors phenotypes at one
extreme.
• Natural selection can take one of three
paths.
– Stabilizing selection favors the
intermediate phenotype.
• There are two types of sexual selection.
– intrasexual selection: competition among males
– intersexual selection: males display certain traits to
females
• Reproductive isolation can occur between isolated
populations.
– members of different
populations cannot
mate successfully
– final step to
becoming separate
species
• Speciation is the rise of two or more species from one
existing species.
Speciation often occurs in patterns.
• A pattern of punctuated equilibrium exists in the
fossil record.
– theory proposed by Eldredge and Gould in 1972
– episodes of speciation occur suddenly in geologic
time
– followed by long periods of little evolutionary change
– revised Darwin’s idea that species arose through
gradual transformations
• Many species evolve from one species during adaptive
radiation.
– ancestral species diversifies into many descendent
species
– descendent species
usually adapted to
wide range of
environments
Chapter 12.3
Earth was very different billions of years ago.
• There have been many hypotheses of Earth’s origins.
• The most widely accepted hypothesis of Earth’s origins is
the nebula hypothesis.
Several sets of hypotheses propose
how life began on Earth.
• There are two organic
molecule hypotheses.
– Miller-Urey experiment:
demonstrated that
organic molecules could
be made by passing an
electric current,
simulating lightning,
through closed system
that held a mixture of
gases
electrodes
“atmosphere”
water
“ocean”
heat source
amino acids
Organic compounds could be made by passing an electrical current
through a mixture of gasses (methane, ammonia, hydrogen and
water vapor).
• These atmospheric gasses comprise the carbon
and nitrogen necessary for amino acids to be formed.
• The oceans provided the elements of oxygen and hydrogen.
• Meteorite hypothesis: amino acids may have arrived
on Earth through meteorite or asteroid impacts
• There are different hypotheses of early cell structure.
– iron-sulfide bubbles hypothesis: biological molecules
combined in compartments of chimney-like structures on
the ocean floor. The compartments acted as the first cell
membranes.
• There are different hypotheses of early cell structure.
– lipid membrane hypothesis: lipid spheres, or liposomes,
could form around a variety of organic molecules, acting
as a cell membrane
• A hypothesis proposes that RNA was the first genetic
material.
– Ribozymes are RNA
molecules that catalyze
their own replication.
– DNA needs enzymes to
replicate itself.
Eukaryotic cells may have evolved through
endosymbiosis.
• Endosymbiosis is a relationship in which one organism lives
within the body of another.
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts may have developed through
endosymbiosis.
KEY CONCEPT
12.6 Humans appeared late in Earth’s history.
Humans share a common ancestor with
other primates.
• Primates are mammals with flexible hands and feet,
forward-looking eyes and enlarged brains.
• Primates evolved into prosimians and anthropoids.
– Prosimians are the oldest living primates.
– They are mostly small and nocturnal.
– Anthropoids are humanlike primates.
– They are subdivided into the New World monkeys, Old
World monkeys, and hominoids.
– Homonoids are
divided into
hominids, great
apes, and lesser
apes.
– Hominids include
living and extinct
humans.
• Bipedal means walking on two legs.
– foraging
– carrying infants and food
– using tools
• Walking upright has
important adaptive
advantages.
There are many fossils of extinct
hominids.
• Most hominids are either the genus Australopithecus or
Homo.
• Australopithecines were a successful genus.
• The Homo genus first evolved 2.4 million years ago.
Modern humans arose about 200,000 years ago.
• Homo sapiens fossils date to 200,000 years ago.
• Human evolution is influenced by a tool-based culture.
• There is a trend toward increased brain size in hominids.
Australopithecus
afarensis
Lucy – 4 mybp
Homo habilis
Homo
neanderthalensis
1.5 mybp
Homo sapiens
196,000 thousand ybp
7 February 2014
Chapter 17.2
Define these words:
Phylogeny –
Cladistics –
Cladogram –
Derived characters –
KEY CONCEPT
17.2 Modern classification is based on evolutionary
relationships.
Cladistics is classification based on common ancestry.
• Phylogeny is the evolutionary history for a group of
species.
– shown with branching tree diagrams (cladograms)
– Cladograms constructed by id’ing derived characters
– evidence from living species, fossil record, and molecular data
• Cladistics is a common method to make evolutionary trees.
– classification based on common ancestry
– species placed in order that they descended from
common ancestor
• A cladogram is an evolutionary tree made using cladistics.
– A clade is a group of species that shares a common
ancestor.
– Each species in a
clade shares some
traits with the
ancestor.
– Each species in a
clade has traits that
have changed.
• Derived characters are traits shared in different degrees by
clade members. Useful for determining evolutionary
relationships between species.
– basis of arranging
species in
cladogram
– more closely
related species
share more
derived characters
– represented on
cladogram as hash
marks
1 Tetrapoda clade
2 Amniota clade
3 Reptilia clade
4 Diapsida clade
5 Archosauria clade
FEATHERS &
TOOTHLESS
BEAKS.
SKULL OPENINGS IN
FRONT OF THE EYE &
IN THE JAW
OPENING IN THE SIDE OF
THE SKULL
SKULL OPENINGS BEHIND THE EYE
EMBRYO PROTECTED BY AMNIOTIC FLUID
FOUR LIMBS WITH DIGITS
DERIVED CHARACTER
• Nodes represent
the most recent
common ancestor
of a clade.
CLADE
1 Tetrapoda clade
2 Amniota clade
3 Reptilia clade
4 Diapsida clade
5 Archosauria clade
FEATHERS AND
TOOTHLESS
BEAKS.
• Clades can be
identified by
snipping a branch
under a node.
SKULL OPENINGS IN
FRONT OF THE EYE AND
IN THE JAW
OPENING IN THE SIDE OF
THE SKULL
SKULL OPENINGS BEHIND THE EYE
EMBRYO PROTECTED BY AMNIOTIC FLUID
NODE
FOUR LIMBS WITH DIGITS
DERIVED CHARACTER
Molecular evidence reveals species’ relatedness.
• Molecular data may confirm classification based on
physical similarities.
• Molecular data may lead scientists to propose a new
classification.
• DNA is usually given the last word by scientists.
10 February 2014
Chapter 17.4
1) Which two species are most
closely related?
A
B
2) Which of the following would
be used to determine the evolutionary
relationships of these organisms?
C
a)
b)
c)
d)
E
DNA sequences
Analogous structures
Homologous structures
Similarity of ecological niches
D
11 February 2014
Chapter 17.4
What does the word Kingdom mean, in relation
to living things?
What about Domains?
1) Which two species are most
closely related?
2) Which of the following would
be used to determine the evolutionary
relationships of these organisms?
a)
b)
c)
d)
DNA sequences
Analogous structures
Homologous structures
Similarity of ecological niches
A
B
C
D
E
KEY CONCEPT
17.3 Molecular clocks provide clues to evolutionary history.
Molecular clocks use mutations to
estimate evolutionary time.
• Mutations add up at a constant rate in related species.
– This rate is the ticking of the molecular clock.
– As more time passes, there will be more mutations.
• Scientists estimate mutation rates by linking molecular
data and real time.
– an event known to separate species
– the first appearance of a species in fossil record
Mitochondrial DNA and ribosomal RNA
provide two types of molecular clocks.
KEY CONCEPT
17.4 The current tree of life has three domains.
Classification is always a work in progress.
• The tree of life shows our most current understanding.
• New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
– Until 1866: only two kingdoms,
Animalia and Plantae
Animalia
Plantae
Classification is always a work in progress.
• The tree of life shows our most current understanding.
• New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
– Until 1866: only two kingdoms,
Animalia and Plantae
Animalia
– 1866: all single-celled
organisms moved to
kingdom Protista
Plantae
Protista
Classification is always a work in progress.
• The tree of life shows our most current understanding.
• New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
– Until 1866: only two kingdoms,
Animalia and Plantae
Animalia
– 1866: all single-celled
organisms moved to
kingdom Protista
Plantae
Protista
– 1938: prokaryotes moved
to kingdom Monera
Monera
Classification is always a work in progress.
• The tree of life shows our most current understanding.
• New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
– Until 1866: only two kingdoms,
Animalia and Plantae
Animalia
– 1866: all single-celled
organisms moved to
kingdom Protista
Plantae
Protista
– 1938: prokaryotes moved
to kingdom Monera
– 1959: fungi moved to
own kingdom
Monera
Fungi
Classification is always a work in progress.
• The tree of life shows our most current understanding.
• New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
– Until 1866: only two kingdoms,
Animalia and Plantae
Animalia
– 1866: all single-celled
organisms moved to
kingdom Protista
Plantae
Protista
– 1938: prokaryotes moved
to kingdom Monera
– 1959: fungi moved to
own kingdom
Archea
Fungi
Bacteria
– 1977: kingdom Monera
split into kingdoms Bacteria and Archaea
The three domains in the tree of life are
Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
• Domains are above the kingdom level.
– Carl Woese: studied rRNA of prokaryotes and found they
were two separate groups, genetically speaking
– domain model more clearly shows prokaryotic diversity
• Domain Bacteria includes prokaryotes in the kingdom
Bacteria.
– one of largest groups
on Earth
– classified by shape,
need for oxygen, and
diseases caused
• Domain Archaea includes prokaryotes in the kingdom
Archaea.
– cell walls chemically
different from bacteria
– differences discovered by
studying RNA
– known for living in extreme
environments
• Bacteria and archaea can be difficult to classify.
– transfer genes among themselves outside of
reproduction
bridge to transfer DNA
– blurs the line
between “species”
– more research
needed to
understand
prokaryotes
• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotes.
– kingdom Protista
• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotes.
– kingdom Protista
– kingdom Plantae
• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotes.
– kingdom Protista
– kingdom Plantae
– kingdom Fungi
• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotes.
–
–
–
–
kingdom Protista
kingdom Plantae
kingdom Fungi
kingdom Animalia
KEY CONCEPT
17.1 Organisms can be classified based on physical
similarities.
Linnaeus developed the scientific naming
system still used today.
• Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying
organisms.
White oak:
Quercus alba
• A taxon is a group of organisms in a classification system.
• Binomial nomenclature is a two-part scientific
naming system.
– uses Latin words
– scientific names always written in italics
– two parts are the genus name and species descriptor
• A genus includes one or more physically similar species.
– Species in the same genus are thought to be closely related.
– Genus name is always capitalized and italisized.
• A species descriptor is the second part of a scientific name.
– always lowercase
– always follows genus
name; never written alone
Tyto alba
• Advantages: unique name for each species, scientists around the
world recognize them
– Some species have very similar common names.
– Some species have many common names.
Linnaeus’ classification system has
seven levels, called taxa.
• Each level is
included in the
level above it.
• Levels get
increasingly
specific from
kingdom to
species.
The Linnaean classification system has limitations.
• Linnaeus taxonomy doesn’t account for molecular
evidence.
– The technology didnt exist during Linneaus’ time.
– Linnaean system based only on physical similarities.
• Physical similarities are not
always the result of close
relationships.
• Genetic similarities more
accurately show evolutionary
relationships.
Geographic isolation
Variation
Punctuated equilibrium
Kingdom Protista
Phylogeny
Archaea
Behavioral isolation
Kingdom Fungi
Homologous structures
Convergent evolution
Vestigal structure
Gene flow
Bottleneck effect
Reproductive isolation
Kingdom Animalia
Cladogram
Endosymbiosis
Geographic isolation
Adaptive radiation
Intersexual
Genetic Drift
Anthropoids
Embryology
Natural Selection
Intrasexual
Eukarya
Biogeography
Bacteria
Fossils
Coevolution
Cladistics
Evolution
Kingdom Plantae
Hominid
Speciation
Prosimians
Primate