Transcript WINTER RENEWAL: You’re doing what? Why?

Writing a research report and
literature review
Presented by
Pamela Champion
Learning Skills Unit
Equity and Learning Programs
University of Melbourne
http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/llsu
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University of Melbourne
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A thesis is more than a persuasive record of
your research - it generally involves presenting
an argument or point of view. It must say
something and be substantiated with reasoned
argument and evidence. If you want to be
interesting as well as academically convincing,
you will need to raise intriguing issues and
discuss them besides presenting your
outcomes
(Barnes, 1995).
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Issues for research students
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Structuring the content
Academic writing
Writing a literature review
Critical writing
Editing
Referencing
Maintaining momentum
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Theses generally must provide…
• A critical review of the literature
• A comprehensive investigation of the topic
• Justification for the methods and techniques
adopted
• Exposition and interpretation of results
• Conclusions and implications linked to
findings and earlier discussion of topic
• An answer to the research question(s)
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Getting started
 Know the academic requirements (expectations)
• Review your writing routines and practices - are they
effective and productive?
• Investigate the writing style and generic conventions you
are expected to produce - read successful recent theses in
your discipline
• Establish your research aim
• Develop a regular work routine (Use a timetable)
• Get a method of organising information
 Establish a way of working with your supervisor
 Start writing ASAP!!
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What are the assessment criteria?
• Find out how your thesis will be assessed – eg. What are
the questions examiners will be asking
• Check the faculty guidelines for Honours theses’
requirements
• Review other theses for writing abstracts, chapter lengths,
how the literature is incorporated, how project aims and/or
research questions are articulated, how the conclusion
‘matches’ the introduction?
• How are the key findings or conclusions set out?
• How many references are listed?
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University of Melbourne
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What is your aim?
• Can you identify the problem or controlling focus of
your research?
• Can you identify a single, over-arching yet specific
aim?
• Note that your aim is not necessarily the same as the
hypotheses you might test or your research questions
(see Evans p.86-88)
• An aim will indicate the significance of the research,
ie to some extent it answers the question, ‘Why?’
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Thesis structure - See the big picture
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Structure may vary but should include:
Preliminaries
Introduction and background (literature)
What you did (methodology)
What you found (results)
What you think (discussion)
What you conclude
Appendices
Reference list
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University of Melbourne
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Preliminaries
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Title page
Abstract
Declaration
Acknowledgments
Table of contents
List of tables
List of figures or illustrations
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Experimental
• Abstract:
• Complete outline of the thesis
• Introduction:
• Provides context, sets up the problem addressed, limits scope and
establishes specific aims
• Methods:
• Describes ‘how’
• Results:
• Describes ‘what happened’, without interpretation
• Discussion:
• Interpretation of the data
• Conclusion:
• Makes generalisations, implications, and sometimes
recommendations
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1. INTRODUCTION
Problem statement
Aim
Research approach
2. BACKGROUND
History, geography
Current theory
Current practice
3. OWN WORK
Research question/s
Design, methods
Results or findings
Case studies, evidence
4. SYNTHESIS
Discussion of results
Implications
Conclusions
Adapted from Evans D. (2002) How to Write a Better Thesis or Report
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Introduction and background
 Introduction - rationale, context, definition of
terms, methodological approach, hypotheses,
research aims, thesis outline
 Background - literature review, review of
current knowledge, the place of your research
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Introduction
Problem
Question, aims
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What you did (methodology)
 Research / case study /literature
 Exploration of hypotheses
 Selection of research methodology
 Design of research instruments /population
 Undertaking the study
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What you found (results)
 Factual reporting of information
 Text and illustrations
 Graphs & tables
(May stand alone or be
integrated with discussion)
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What you think (Discussion)
 Analysis & discussion of results
 What you discovered
 How it relates to existing literature
 Insights, ideas, problems, questions etc
 Structuring process (varies)
 Relate discussion to hypothesis/ aims
 Group information into associated ideas or themes
 Organise using headings and sub-headings
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What you make of it all (Conclusion)
 Brief account of your findings (not a conclusion)
 Respond to the aim/s in the first chapter
 Draw conclusions from the discussion chapter and
relate to the literature
 Your addition to body of knowledge
 Problems / further research
 A conclusion involves a statement of the significance
of what you have found
 Conclusions should be crisp and concise
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Finally
 The reference material
Reference list
Bibliography
Appendix or appendices
Index (if required)
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What is a literature review?
 The first part of the ‘real’ thesis
 Provides a context for your research focus
 explains what research has preceded yours
 shows where your research questions arise and fit with
existing knowledge
 Evaluates current literature
 demonstrates you have critically reviewed the literature
 Integrates reviewed literature into a logical discussion
 Allows readers to understand your work
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Your review should establish:
• The significance and aim of the review
• What approaches were taken or conclusions reached in
important earlier research, by whom and when
• Do these approaches agreement or conflict
• The main issues or controversies which surround the
topic you are researching
• Gaps in previous research and new possibilities
• How previous research informs your understanding and
investigation of the topic
• Implications for practice
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Structure of a review
One method of organisation may suit your area
of study better than another
• Chronological; early to later studies
• Major authors / studies
• Perspectives or positions taken on the topic
• Issues or debates; key issues/ related issues
• Methodology
• Themes; to be dealt with in turn (thematic review)
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How do I write my lit review?
 mostly present tense
 discussing the present problem and the current
state of knowledge
 explaining what your research does
 some past tense
 reviewing former work
 discussing earlier theories
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Common problems:
 Locating the literature
 Too much material
 The literature has been reviewed before
 A new, unexamined project
 A cross-disciplinary project
 Maintaining a focus when reading
 Keeping track of all the information
 Writing the lit review
Organising material
Making links between sources,
and with own project
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Too much material
• It’s normal to be overwhelmed
• Start with the most recent and/or major studies
• Start with the footnotes and indexes: what names/studies are
referred to again and again?
• Look for recurring patterns and links • What are the common concerns of research on the topic?
• Set reasonable and limited targets –
• Quantity is often less important than the quality of the literature and
how it is discussed
• As a final resort, consider refocussing and limiting your research
topic
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The literature has been reviewed before
• Don’t panic - you can use other people’s reviews as a
starting point for your research and reading
• The different focus, methods or questions guiding your
research will necessitate a different focus for your
review and your analysis/critique will be original
• Try to offer something different - a different
organisation or conceptualisation of the material; your
own evaluation of the merit and importance of the
various authors/studies
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Assessing your Literature review
Selection and organisation of material
• Have you indicated the most recent, relevant and
significant research?
• Is your material sensibly organised to highlight issues?
Critical evaluation of the literature
• Comprehensive and insightful
• Clarifies the research problem and existing research
• Establishes context for research
Presentation style consistent and correct
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Academic writing style
 Clear and concise - short simple sentences
 Observes academic discourse - rules for each
academic discipline
 Is formal - no contractions, slang, colloquialisms etc
 Impersonal -usually third person
 Objective - evidence driven
 Accurate - information and conclusion based on
acknowledged evidence
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Critical thinking
Analysis + Synthesis + Evaluation
Identifies and challenges assumptions
Imagines and explores alternatives
Compares and contrasts to existing
knowledge
Recognises strengths and
weaknesses
Demonstrates reflective scepticism
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Framework for critical thinking
• Clarity
• Depth
• is the message clear,
comprehensive?
• Accuracy
• are all complexities
addressed?
• Breadth
• is it true?
• are all issues considered?
• Precision
• Logic
• is it concise?
• does it make sense?
• Relevance
• how does it connect with
what is known?
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University of Melbourne
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Think and question when reading
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What is the main purpose of the article/research?
What conceptual framework was used?
Where does this research fit with existing knowledge?
What was measured/evaluated?
How was data collected?
How appropriate was the methodology?
Are results true/accurate?
Do results link with discussion/conclusions?
Does evidence support main contention?
Is the article readable?
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Writing critically
• Avoid descriptive writing
• Look for strengths and weaknesses
• Make links between past knowledge and present
learning
• Link information from different sources
• Make links between ideas
• Develop your own perspective and articulate it in a
logical way
• Ask “So What?”
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The language of a critical review
The difficulty with this argument is that it fails to consider…/
assumes an issue in contention, namely…/ is unsupported by the
literature…/ fails to consider recent developments in …
These articles do not indicate …
It is unclear whether men and women experience ... in the same
way.
In analysing the data, gender and SES were two control variables.
However, the author did not consider …
While Chaplin undertakes a thorough survey of the theoretical
literature, professional and practical issues have not been
addressed.
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Data on smoking prevalence by nursing specialties show higher
rates of current smoking among psychiatric (23%) gerontologic
(18.2%), and emergency nurses (18%) and lower rates among
pediatric critical care nurses (7.6%) and nurses working in
general pediatrics, women’s health, and school settings (9.6%)
(Trinkoff & Stott, 1998). Despite the evidence the nurses
continue to smoke at high rates, limited support has been
provided by the nursing profession to help nurses quit, and
published studies have not detailed cessation strategies used
by nurses who have achieved long-term abstinence (Chalmers
et al, 2001; Gritz et al., 1988; Rowe, Clarke & Mcleod,1999).
Nonetheless, the decline in smoking prevalence among nurses
indicates the many nurses have quit smoking successfully.
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Signposting/Connectives
 Use these to indicate direction of your thoughts:
 The author states - expresses, describes, argues,
instructs, informs, contradicts or reports
 Disagree - dispute, reject, differ, strongly…
 Add an idea - in addition, furthermore…
 Make comparisons and contrasts - although, in spite
of, alternatively, similarly.….
 Illustrate or support - thus, evidence suggests,
clearly, convincingly …
 Summarise - finally, in summary, therefore…
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When and what to reference?
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Ideas we get from others, even if they are written in
our own words
• Quotes from other authors
• Information in tables and figures also needs to be
referenced
Your reader is working on the assumption that
anything not referenced is your original work
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APA Referencing style
(American Psychological Association)
The APA uses an author, date format
• Book - Author, date, title, place published, publisher
• Journal /periodical - Author, date, title, journal,
volume, page/s
Use required style(APA) consistently and
accurately
Check style manual (or web site) for correct
method of in-text citing and reference list
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In text - citing
• If you are quoting (copying words exactly) give:
• author name, year of publication and page number “One of the most
damaging characteristics of stress is impatience” (Wilson, 1985 p. 69).
• Wilson (1985, p.69) states that “one of the most damaging characteristics
of stress is impatience”.
• To indicate use of others information / ideas give:
• author name and year of publication
• Impatience caused by stress is damaging (Wilson, 1985).
• If you are using more than one reference to support the same point
• put both authors and dates of publication in the same brackets,
separated by a semi-colon
• Impatience which is caused by stress can be extremely damaging (Craven,
2002; Smith, 1990; Wilson, 1985).
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APA reference list:
• A reference list contains details of all the references cited in your
writing
• A bibliography contains all the reference materials you have
used whether they have been used as references or not
• Your reference list should:
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contain details of all the references cited
be the same referencing style used in writing
be in alphabetical order - (surname first)
is double spaced, with all lines following the first indented by 5
spaces
• have the name of the book title or journal name in italics
• include the publisher and city where the work was published
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Keeping track of everything
• Keep a research diary: note your searches,
which you have a copy of, what you have read, and
what you can’t get
• Set up a system for keeping track of
references: eg EndNote, other applications, card
file
• Make note of publishing details and other
bibliographic information, (including library
information)
• Keep an ideas and thoughts journal
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Edit for one thing at a time
Structural editing first
 Is the argument consistent across sections?
 Are sections clearly connected?
 Anything missing/ redundant?
 Is discussion balanced?
 Then proofread - Polishing and presentation
 References
 Sentences / grammar
 Spelling, punctuation
 Read your work out loud
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What makes a good report?
Content
 The main argument (thesis) is clear, consistent and
well supported
 All information is relevant to topic
 Critical analysis is incorporated into discussion (not
all descriptive)
 Strong links between literature and research
 Argument is direct and explicit
 Each idea is fully developed, explained and
supported by literature
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What makes a good report?
 Presentation
 Writing style is clear, concise & appropriate for
discipline
 Information organised logically
 All ideas are well connected
 Referencing style is consistent and correct
 Introduction provides a context, rationale and
captures readers attention
 Conclusion is comprehensive and insightful
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Writing expectations and issues
• Good academic writing comes with time,
understanding, practice and effort
• Writing takes time: Does the 60:40 rule apply to your
project? (60% research: 40% writing)
• Developing the required standard of writing needs to
be viewed as a separate project alongside the
research
• Mastery of your research topic and mastery of the
academic discourse in your field may not proceed at
the same pace or be ‘in sync’
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Establishing writing habits
• Writing is a process, a craft, a practice
• Have you established an effective writing routine?
• Break the task into smaller ‘chunks’ - if need be, aim
for one paragraph: ‘I will just write a paragraph
analyzing …’
• Think about where, when, what, how and who:
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Where: home, library, other
When: time of day, long or short bursts
What: set targets
How: a new section each time?
• Read/think/write
• Who can you ask for feedback on drafts?
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Writing tips
• Write, don’t edit, to develop the first draft
• Write during your ‘best’ concentration times - 8am?
11pm? Do you need short blocks or long bursts?
• Combine a reading block with a writing block (eg. 1.5
hours reading then 1.5 hours writing)
• Develop a (short) routine to ‘settle’ yourself into
writing - computer on, cup of tea, skim notes etc
• Start by writing what you intend to do: compare X and
Y’s approaches; explain ‘method X’; analyse data
relating to question 4. (ie develop a task target)
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Useful references
• Barrass, R. Scientists Must Write: a guide to better writing for
scientists, engineers and students. Routledge: London and NY,
2002.
• Davis, L. and McKay, S. Structures and Strategies: An
Introduction to Academic Writing. Macmillan: South Melbourne,
1996.
• Evans, D. and Gruba, P. How to Write a Better Thesis. 2nd
edition. Melbourne University Press: Carlton South, 2002.
• Taylor, G. The Student’s Writing Guide for the Arts and Social
Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989.
• Williams, J. Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace. The
University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1990.
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