Transcript Memory & Information Processing

Week 3
Memory
&
Information Processing
The Nature of Memory
What is Memory?
n Memory
n The retention of information over time
What is involved in Memory?
n Encoding
How information gets into memory
Storage
n The retention of information over time
n Retrieval
n Bringing information out of memory storage
Memory & Information
Processing
In order to remember something, we
must:
• Encode (get info into our brain)
• Store (keep the info somewhere safe)
• Retrieve (get the info back out later)
(Kohn & Kohn, 1998)
Memory Encoding
n
Rehearsal
n The conscious repetition of information that
increases the length of time that information stays
in memory
n
Depth of processing
n Deep processing of stimuli produces better
memory of them
n
Elaboration
n The extensiveness of processing at any given
depth of memory
Information is stored in:
• Long Term Memory
• Short Term Memory
• Sensory Memory
External
Events
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention &
Encoding
Short-Term
Memory
Retrieval
(Richarson, 1999)
Encoding
Long-Term
Memory
Memory Storage
n Atkinson-Shiffrin theory
Memory involves a sequence of three
stages
n Sensory memory
n Short-term (working) memory
n Long-term memory
Sensory Memory
n
Sensory memory
n A form of memory storage that hold
information from the world in its original sensory
form for only an instant, not much longer than the
brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and
other senses
n
Echoic memory
n Auditory sensory memory in which information
is retained for up to several seconds
n
Iconic memory
n Visual sensory memory in which information is
retained for only about 1/4 second
Working (Short-Term) Memory
n
Working memory
n A limited-capacity storage system in which
information is retained for as long as 30 seconds,
unless it is rehearsed, in which case it can be
retained longer
n
Memory span
n The number of digits an individual can report
back in order after a single presentation of them
Long Term Memory
n Long-term memory
n A relatively permanent type of memory that
holds huge amounts of information for a long
period of time
(Kohn &
Kohn,
1998)
Memory’s Contents
n
Declarative memory
n The conscious recollection of information, such
as specific facts or events
n
Can be verbally communicated
n
Nondeclarative memory
n Memory that is affected by prior experience
without that experience being consciously
recollected
n
Cannot be verbally communicated
Declarative Memory
n
Episodic memory
n The retention of information about the where
and when of life’s happenings
n
Semantic memory
n
A person’s knowledge about the world
n General academic knowledge, meanings of
words, important places/dates, etc.
Representing Memory
n
Network theories
n Our memories can be envisioned as a
complex network of nodes that stand for
labels or concepts
n
Schema theories
n When we reconstruct information,we
use existing concepts (schemas) to
organize and interpret information
How Is Information Encoded?
Automatic Processing
“CAT”
Automatic Processing
Encoding
Effortful Processing
(Richardson, 1999)
Effortful Processing
“464-7765”
Automatic Processing
Requires Little Or No Effort
and
Is Very Difficult To Shut Off
Effortful Processing
Requires Extra Effort
and
Is Very Complex Encoding
Key Ways of Processing Info:
•Meaning
•Visualization
•Organization
Emotional Memories
n
Flashbulb memories
n Memories of emotionally significant events
that people often recall with more accuracy and
vivid imagery than everyday events
n
Personal trauma
n
Repressed memories
n
Mood-congruent memories
Encoding Meaning
Semantic Encoding Is Best For Verbal
Information
Semantic
Levels of Processing
Acoustic
Verbal Info
Visual
Semantic
Acoustic
Visual
(Richardson, 1999)
We Encode Meaning
MEANING
of verbal information is encoded, rather
than the exact word, wording or sound
Encoding Imagery
Earliest memories involve mental imagery
It’s easier to recall concrete words than
abstract words
Flashbulb Memories
“Do you remember that time….?
Organizing Info & Encoding
Meaningful Info is Easier to Encode
Chunking
Hierarchies
Magical Number 7±2
“ciacnnabccbsnbc”
ROYGBIV
Broad Concepts First
Details Next
Class Notes
(Richardson, 1999)
Storage: Sensory Memory
How do we know it exists? Sperling (1960)
Immediate Recall of All 9 Letters
Only about 50% recall
K
Q
S
Z
B
G
Cued Recall of Specific Row (tone)
Almost 100% recall
Iconic Memory
~ 250 msecs
(Richardson, 1999)
Echoic Memory
~ 3-4 seconds
50 msec display
R
T
F
Storage: Short Term Memory
Percent of Ss who
recalled consonants
Task
100
80
60
40
20
0
STM
(Richardson, 1999)
Remember CHJ
(no rehearsal)
J
J
J
J
J
J
3
6
9
12
15
18
Time (sec) between presentation
and recall
Limited Time (rehearsal)
Limited Capacity (7 ± 2)
Storage: Long Term Memory
Ave adult brain has ~ 1 billion bits of info stored
Capacity may be 1000 - 100,000,000 times greater
Forgetting Curve
(Ebbinghaus)
Much of what we
learn
we quickly forget
(Richardson, 1999)
Percent of list
retained
How precise and durable
are our memories?
60
50
40
30
20
10
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25
Time (days) since learning
Memory Retrieval
Serial position effect
n Recall is superior for the items at the
beginning of a list and the end of a list
Primacy effect
n Superior recall for items at the beginning of
a list
Recency effect
n
Superior recall for items at the end of a list
Where are memories stored?
Lashley’s Rats - Trained rats & then removed
specific portions of their brains
Gerard’s Hamsters - Trained hamsters &
temporarily “turn off” brain’s electrical activity
Both the rats & the hamsters still “remembered”
their training!
Conclusion
Memories do not reside in a single, specific location.
(Richardson, 1999)
The Neurobiological Basis of
Memory
Memory Retrieval
n
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
n A type of “effortful retrieval” that occurs when
people are confident they know something but
just can’t quite seem to pull it out of memory
How are memories stored?
Aplysia - during conditioning:
1. More serotonin released at certain synapses
2. These synapses became more efficient
Long Term Potentiation - prolonged
strengthening of potential neural firing
Serotonin
Blockers
Alcohol
Boxing
Shock Therapy
(Richardson, 1999)
Serotonin
Stimulators
Stress
Emotions
Types of Long-Term
Memory
Explicit
Implicit
knowing you know
not knowing you know
Semantic
Episodic
Procedural
Dispositions
Facts/General
Knowledge
Experienced
events
Skills
Motor/Cognitive
Classical/Operant
Conditioning
Separate Processing & Storage
Remembering: Retrieval Cues
Recognition
Identification of items
previously learned
Recall
Retrieval of information
previously learned
Retrieval Cues - help us to remember
Web of Associations
Priming
Activation of a
connected node
(Implicit)
(Richardson, 1999)
“hare”
Remembering: Context & Mood
Context Effect
Memory increases if recall
occurs in the same context as
encoding.
Remembering: Context & Mood
State-Dependent
Memory increases if
mood at recall is the
same as retrieval
Easier to remember
something you learned
in a good mood when
you’re in a good mood
again
Forgetting is a Retrieval Failure
Some info may never
make it to LTM
Encoding Failure
Some info may not
make it out of LTM
Interference
Interference - learning some items may interfere
with learning other items
Proactive vs. Retroactive
Interference
(Richardson, 1999)
Forgetting
Interference theory
n We forget because other information gets in
the way of what we want to remember
Proactive interference
n Material that was learned earlier disrupts the
recall of material learned later
Retroactive interference
n Material learned later disrupts retrieval of
information learned earlier
Forgetting - Encoding Failure?
External
Events
Sensory
Memory
Attention &
Encoding
Short-Term
Memory
Retrieval
(Richardson, 1999)
Encoding
Long-Term
Memory
Interference
Proactive Interference
Something learned earlier disrupts something learned
later.
Past
Present
Retroactive Interference
Something learned later disrupts something learned earlier.
Past
Present
(Richardson, 1999)
Retrieval Cues
Encoding specificity principle
n Associations formed at the time
of encoding or learning tend to be
effective retrieval cues
Priming
n Activating particular connections
or association in memory
Retrieval Cues
Recall
n A memory measure in which the individual
must retrieve previously learned information
n
Essay test
n
Recognition
n A memory measure in which the individual
only has to identify (“recognize”) learned items
n
Multiple choice test
Amnesia
n
Anterograde amnesia
n Affects the retention of new information or
events
n Doesn’t affect information learned before
the onset of the condition
n
Retrograde amnesia
n Memory loss for a segment of the past but
not for new events
(Feldman, 1999)
Implicit & Explicit Memories
Amnesiacs, incapable of learning new facts,
can be conditioned to do new tasks
They know things but don’t remember learning!
Implicit Memory
Knowing how to
do something
Cerebellum
Explicit Memory
Knowing that you
know something
Hippocampus
Mnemonics
Tools for remembering things:
Acronyms
Analogies
Story-telling
(Mind Map, 2002)
Memory and Study Strategies
n
Effective strategies
n
Pay attention and minimize distraction
n Understand the material rather than
rotely memorize it
n
Organize what you put into memory
(Mind Map, 2002)
More Effective Strategies
n Mnemonics
n Specific memory aids for remembering
information
n Method of loci
n Acronyms
n Keyword method
(Mind Map, 2002)
More Effective Strategies
n
Ask yourself questions
n
Spread out and consolidate your learning
n
Cognitively monitor your progress
n Be a good time manager and planner
(Mind Map, 2002)
Taking Good Notes
n
Summarizing
n
Outlining
n Concept maps
n
The Cornell method
n
Review notes periodically
(Mind Map, 2002)
The PQ4R Method
n
Preview
n
Question
n
Read
n Reflect
n
Recite
n
Review
(Mind Map, 2002)
References
Feldman, M. (1999). McGraw Hill Company.
Retrieved May 2002 from World Wide Web at:
http://www.mcgrawhill.com.
Kohn, A. J. & Kohn, W. (1998). The Integrator 2.0.
CD-Rom. Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning.
Mind Map. (2002). Retrieved May 2002 from World
Wide Web at: http://www.mindmap.com.
Richardson, K. (1999). Retrieved May 2002 from
the World Wide Web at:
http://www.monmouth.edu.