Transcript ANCIENT HUMAN REMAINS

ANCIENT HUMAN
REMAINS
Dead Men Do Tell Tales
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Inference: What Can We Learn?
􀂄 Demographic structure of population
􀂄 Height, body size, relatedness
􀂄 Everyday life
􀂄 Subsistence
􀂄 Disease and health
􀂄 Stress (physical, dietary)
􀂄 Beliefs
􀂄 Status
􀂄 Trade and migration
DETERMINING GENDER
• • In general, the muscles in a man are
stronger
• and more developed than in a woman.
• • Bones of men are larger and more robust
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• bones of women.
• • Some bones display specific features which
• can be used to help determination of the sex
• of the skeleton. The best indicators are the:
• – Skull
• – Pelvis
• – Head of the Femur
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Sex Estimation – Adult
• Usually related to size in adult long bones
• Male bones: usually larger, longer in a single population – be
cautious if different
populations are involved
• Maximum diameter of head of humerus and head of femur may
be used (Bass).
• Much more difficult to estimate sex in children’s skeletons.
Sex Estimation: Face
1. Supraorbital (Brow) ridges: more prominent in males
2. Superior orbital margin: sharper in females
3. Palate: larger in males
4. Teeth: larger in males (Bass)
5. Mastoid process: more prominent and rugged in
males.
6. Orbit (Eye socket): Rounder in females, more
rectangular in males
7. Chin: more pronounced in males and larger jaws.
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Pelvis
• Women give birth. For this reason, the pelvis of a
woman is larger than the pelvis of a man.
• The pelvis of a woman is wide and circular whereas
the pelvis of a man is narrow and heart‐shaped.
• Two angles, the sub‐pubic angle and the sciatic
notch, cause the differences in the shape of the
pelvis.
• In women, the sub‐pubic angle and sciatic notch are
wide. In men, the sub‐pubic angle and sciatic notch
DETERMINING AGE
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• Bone growth stops at about 20 yrs. of age in
humans.
• Adult bone continuously adapts to prevailing
stresses by appropriate deposition and
resorption.
• • Deposition and resorption are under
• hormonal control ‐
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Skeletal Age
• Skeletal age is the estimated age at which a
person died. Skeletal age can be determined
by looking at the following:
– sutures of the skull
– teeth
– ribs
– vertebrae
– growth areas of the long bones: epiphyses
• X‐Rays Are Used to Date
Skulls
• • This is the side view of
• the dentition of a six
• year old boy.
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• variation from person to
• person in the order in
• which the teeth erupt.
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
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• Bone disease (Paget's disease, tumors)
• Previous injury to bone (fracture callus,
prosthesis, metallic fragments).
• Comparison of pattern of bone.
• Pattern of skull's frontal air sinuses. Outline
is unique and comparisons with clinical X‐rays
are useful
HEIGHT
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• An intact corpse can be measured, but a
disarticulated or incomplete skeleton has to be
pieced together.
• One rule of thumb is that height is about five times
the length of the humerus, but there are formulas for
height based on other major bones as well (spine,
tibia, and femur).
• Estimates for the femur, tibia, humerus, radius, ulna,
calcaneus and talus can be used to generate a
composite height estimate that is more accurate.
Stress, Disease, and Trauma
Paleopathology is the study of medical disorders and injury in human
skeletal remains.
• The health status of past populations can be investigated by recording the
nature trauma that affects the skeleton.
• Such diseases and injuries include bone fractures, arthritis, and periodontal
diseases.
• Nutritional problems may be reflected in poorly developed bones and a low
average height for the population.
• Cause of death can only be determined in a small percentage of burials, but
violence is not infrequently reflected in the human skeleton.
– Stress during one's lifetime is also revealed in the skeleton.
• Malnourishment in childhood causes the disruption of bone growth.
• Tooth enamel also reflects childhood stress and malnourishment in an
irregular series of lines.
• Arthritis results in an accumulation of bone tissue around an afflicted area.
• Various infectious diseases may result in bone loss and pitting or the
deformation of the skull and other bone surfaces
What are bog bodies?
• Over the past centuries, remains of many hundreds of people -men, women, and children--have come to light during peat
cutting activities in northwestern Europe, especially in Ireland,
Great Britain, the Netherlands, northern Germany, and
Denmark.
• These are the "bog bodies."
• The individual bog bodies show a great degree of variation in
their state of preservation, from skeletons, to well-preserved
complete bodies, to isolated heads and limbs.
• They range in date from 8000 B.C. to the early medieval period.
Most date from the centuries around the beginning of our era.
• We do not know exactly how many bog bodies have been found-many have disappeared since their discovery.
BOG CHEMISTRY
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=KCj8XQLGSDs
• Many people find it hard to imagine that the dark brown bog
bodies were once lightly colored human beings of flesh and
blood who lived in timber houses, brought up children, looked
after their cattle, grew crops, made clothes, prepared meals, and
manufactured tools.
• Facial reconstructions and remains of their hair and clothing give
us an idea of how they looked during life.
• No one knows how these people ended up in the bogs, but it
seems that the bodies are not the remains of unlucky people
who fell in after losing their way.
• According to classical authors, the Roman Iron Age people of
northern Europe offered human sacrifices to celebrate military
victories, and to recover from illness, and executed people as
punishment for crimes or perceived social imperfections such as
homosexuality.
• Many of those found in the bogs died violent deaths.
• Notes from: http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/bog
LOCATION OF BOG BODIES
The Body
• The man was naked. He had red-brown hair
and stubble on his chin. His skin was stained
dark by the bog water. His hands were smooth
and his fingerprints were very clear. His face
showed pain and terror.
The Police Report
• They examined the body’s hands and
feet.
• They found that the footprints and
fingerprints were clearer than their own.
• They couldn’t match the fingerprints to
any in their records.
The Autopsy
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The throat had been cut from ear to ear.
The skull was fractured.
There was food in the stomach.
There were 63 kinds of grain and seeds, but no
meat of fresh fruit or vegetables.
• There were signs of arthritis,
so the man was probably more
than 30 years of age.
• There were 21 teeth
– the others had rotted away.
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1. Head reconstructed from skull measurements, revealing
bulging brow, deep-set eyes
2. Crowns of molar teeth shorn off by impact of blows to skull
3. Reddish beard roughly cut before death
4. Fox-fur arm band
5. Closing of skull sutures reveals victim's age
6. Two adjoining scalp lacerations indicate use of heavy weapon probably an axe - to deliver blows from above and behind
7. Smooth hands, manicured fingernails
8. Pollen analysis shows Lindow Man was dropped face first into
water a metre deep - suggesting a symbolic drowning
9. Blood group 'O' identifies victim as a Celt
10. Fracture at base of skull caused by blunt instrument
11. Animal sinew garotte with triple knots
12. Slight deformations in spine indicate mild arthritis
13. Stomach contents reveal victim's last meal to be a burnt
bannock or griddle cake
14. Lower body sheared off during a previous peat extraction
15. Leg severed during peat-cutting reveals onset of mild osteoarthritis
SCIENTIFIC RESTING
• RADIOCARBON DATING
• Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (
C14)
• MULTI SPECTRAL ANALYSES (
chemical analyses)
• MRI
• FORENSIC TESTING
• DNA??????????
The results of the radiocarbon dating?
• This is a scientific test that tells us how long ago
living things died.
• Parts of the body were tested in the National
Museum.
• The tests showed that the man had died between
210 and 410 AD – between 1500 and 1700 years
ago! The initial dates were contaminated by the
peat leading to an earlier Iron Age date
• More recent dating showed between 20AD-90AD
PROBLEMS OF PATHOLOGY
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Pathology –Health and Disease
􀂄 The Paradox:
􀂄 “Healthy” looking skeletons: May have died of
serious, acute infections
􀂄 “Unhealthy” looking skeletons: May have been
strong enough to survive multiple insults to health
􀂄 We’re looking at DEAD populations – not living
ones
􀂄 Disease we can see in bone?
􀂄 Long-standing, chronic conditions
􀂄 Include infection, dietary deficiency, degenerative
FINDINGS
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The team was able to establish that Lindow Man was around 25 when he died. However, the exact
period of his death was harder to pinpoint. Radio carbon dating produced conflicting results.
Analysis of certain material suggested the body was late Iron Age whereas others pointed to the
post Roman period. However, a probable date of the late Iron Age/early Roman period was arrived
at through analysis of pollen samples found in the stomach contents.
Read more at Suite101: Lindow Man: The Life and Death of a Bog Body http://archaeological-burialpractices.suite101.com/article.cfm/lindow_man#ixzz0ax50t2N8
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Lindow man’s body was incomplete with his lower abdomen and one leg missing. Archaeologists
were able to easily establish his sex as male from the fact that he had a beard and moustache. This
is unique amongst male bog bodies.
He was a well built individual. By looking at the length of his upper arm bone, his height was
established as between 5 feet 6 inches to 5 feet 8 inches, making him taller than most men of his
time. His weight was calculated as being 60-65 pounds or nearly 10 stone.
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Read more at Suite101: Lindow Man: The Life and Death of a Bog Body http://archaeological-burialpractices.suite101.com/article.cfm/lindow_man#ixzz0ax5GpBdY
• Despite showing signs of slight osteoarthritis, Lindow Man was in good
health for the period he lived in.
• His teeth, although stripped of enamel by the acid environment of the
peat were healthy with no cavities.
• He was suffering from a severe case of whip worm and maw worm but this
would probably have passed unnoticed.
• . Electron microscopy revealed that his hair follicles were stepped; leading
archaeologists to conclude that his hair was trimmed not long before his
death with scissors or shears. These were not common items at the time,
and this detail coupled with his well manicured nails and smooth hands
led to speculation that Lindow Man had been a high ranking member of
society. Nothing else could be found to indicate high rank as the body was
naked except for a fox fur armband.
• However, the skin was found to have a high copper content, suggesting
that Lindow Man’s body had been painted prior to death.
ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE
• Lindow Man’s stomach had not decayed, allowing for the analysis of his
partly digested stomach contents. By examining them under a microscope,
it was discovered that his final meal was little more than a snack
composed of chaff and bran. Electron spin resonance was used to
establish the maximum cooking temperature of the meal, how long it was
cooked for and the method used. It seemed that Lindow man had eaten a
type of griddle cake, cooked on a flat surface at 200 degrees centigrade for
about half an hour. During this process, it had burnt.
• The griddle cake was not all that was found in the stomach. From traces of
pollen present, it seemed Lindow Man had also consumed a concoction
made from mistletoe.
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Read more at Suite101: Lindow Man: The Life and Death of a Bog Body
http://archaeological-burialpractices.suite101.com/article.cfm/lindow_man#ixzz0ax5aaEdY
CONCLUSIONS ON THE MANNER OF
DEATH
• Lindow Man’s end was violent. He was initially hit on the head
twice. One blow was hard enough to drive a splinter of bone into
the brain which would have rendered him unconscious if not killed
him outright. One of his ribs was broken, suggesting he may have
been kneed in the back. A 1.5 mm thick thong of animal sinew was
found around his neck. This is assumed to be a garrotte used to
strangle him as two of his neck vertebrae were broken. Finally,
there was a gash on the side of his neck that would have severed
the jugular. Probably post mortem, it is assumed this was a
deliberate wound. The body was then dropped face down into a
bog pool.
Read more at Suite101: Lindow Man: The Life and Death of a Bog
Body http://archaeological-burialpractices.suite101.com/article.cfm/lindow_man#ixzz0ax5mfEXL
POSSIBLE THEORIES
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The complex method of killing Lindow Man makes a straightforward murder unlikely. Some have
argued that his death may have been an execution, with his simple last meal being appropriate to a
criminal.
However, the discovery of mistletoe, a sacred plant in the stomach contents, taken with the body’s
pampered appearance and the three fold nature of his death has led to the theory that Lindow Man
was in fact a sacrificial victim.
Mistletoe is a narcotic with calming effects and so possibly could have been used to sedate him
before the ritual began. The blow to the head, followed by garrotting and finally bleeding suggest a
ceremonial ‘Triple Death.’ Lindow man’s body is possibly contemporary with the Claudian Roman
invasion of Britain.
Was he an important member of the tribe who was chosen to die as a sacrifice to protect his
people from the invaders? The burnt griddle cake found in his stomach is consistent with a tradition
whereby sacrificial victims were chosen by randomly selecting the burnt portion of a cake or
bannock.
On the other hand, Lindow man may have volunteered to die.
His death could also have been part of seasonal ceremonies to ensure a good harvest or a safe
winter. Lindow man’s smooth hands and manicured finger nails may not indicate high rank but a
period of inactivity from his selection as sacrifice until his ritual death.
Can Strabo help?
• Strabo was a Greek geographer who lived 2000
years ago. He wrote about the people of
Denmark.
• Strabo describes the sacrifice of prisoners of
war by the people of northern Denmark:
• "Priestesses would enter the camp, sword in
hand, and go up to prisoners, crown them, and
lead them up to a cauldron. One of them would
mount a step, and, leaning over the cauldron,
cut the throat of a prisoner, who was held over
the rim."
What does Tacitus have to say?
• Tacitus was a Roman who wrote a book about the people
of Denmark in 98 AD. Here are two quotes from his book.
• "The people of Denmark all worship Nerthus (Mother
Earth)…On an island there is a sacred grove of trees, and in
the grove stands a chariot draped with a cloth that only the
priest is allowed to touch... Merrymaking takes place in
every place that she decides to visit. No one goes to
war…until the goddess is again taken back into the temple
by the priest. After that, the chariot, the cloth and the
goddess herself are washed in a hidden lake. This is done
by slaves who are immediately afterwards drowned in the
lake."
• "Cowards are drowned in miry swamps under a cover of
hurdles."
The Cauldron
• A cauldron has been found in Denmark similar to
that to which Strabo refers.
• It is called the Gundestrup Cauldron.
• It is a large silver bowl that was found near
Gundestrup in the north of Denmark.
• It is covered with pictures of people and animals.
• One picture shows the earth goddess with a dead
dog and dead man. Another image, shows a man
being sacrificed over a cauldron.
The Gundestrup Cauldron
Detail from the Gundestrup Cauldron
ROMAN BRITAIN TIMELINE
A PIECE OF THE PUZZLE!!!
Early summer AD 61 Romans
campaign against the druids in the
far west of Britain
The druids were the priest-scholars
of ancient Britain, but 'druid' also
tended to be a 'catch all' name used
by the Romans for those who
resisted their rule. In order to
suppress the druids in the far west of
Britain, Roman governor Gaius
Suetonius Paulinus subdued the
island of Mona (Anglesey), but he
was forced to cut short the campaign
to put down the revolt of the Iceni
under Boudicca in south east Britain.
Reconstructions"Bodies of the Bogs"
• One of the most spectacular techniques used in bog
body research is the reconstruction of facial features.
This can only be done if the skull is well preserved, or if
it can be reconstructed. Clay or wax is used to model
soft tissues on a faithful copy of the skull to which are
added artificial eyes, skin, and hair.
• The exact thickness of the tissues in many different
parts of the skull has been determined by research
among modern populations. The final version of the
reconstructed head is executed in plaster, clay, or wax.
• A wax version with colorful artificial eyes and a wig give
a particularly convincing impression of what the
individual looked like shortly before his or her death.
FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION
• The artist utilizes proper tissue
depth data determined by race,
gender, and age.
• Artificial eyes are placed in the
skull’s eye sockets,
• centered and at the proper
depth.
• The tissue markers are glued
directly onto the skull.
• Clay will be systematically
applied directly on the skull,
following the skull's contours;
paying strict attention to the
applied tissue markers.
VIRTUAL RECONSTRUCTION
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VF1cVAb0J2Q&NR=1
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=053pmMN2khg
LIMITATIONS
• Facial reconstruction is destined to remain an art,
albeit an increasingly informed one. The shape of
the face bears only a restricted resemblance to
the underlying bone structure. Facial
reconstructions are inherently inaccurate,
therefore, and cannot be used as a positive proof
of identification – certainly not in a court of law.
Like many things in archaeology, a facial
reconstruction is a scientifically-informed artistic
recreation – an interpretation
DEBATES ABOUT LINDOW MAN
• “The archaeological interpretation of Lindow Man
has been that he suffered a ‘Triple Death’; that he
was hit on the head, strangled, and had his throat
cut. Having his throat cut was in its own way a way
of honouring a particular Celtic God. It almost seems
as though the greater violence they are subjected to
the greater the religious force of the sacrifice, the
more power, the greater the evocation of the gods.”
• Bryan Sitch, Head of Humanities, The Manchester
Museum
• April 2008
Robert Connelly vs J D Hill
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Mr Connolly believes that the man may have been murdered in a violent attack. “This isn’t an
elaborate death,” he said. “He was clubbed to death. A small group of people believe it was a ritual
killing, but it makes a better story. With respect to my archaeology colleagues, they like ritual
sacrifices. The museum and several other people just want it to be a ritual sacrifice.”
The two men say that many of the wounds could have been inflicted during peat-cutting activities
or from the man having been trampled by a horse.
They argue that Lindow Man’s throat cartilage shows no sign of the trauma associated with
strangulation and that the decorative necklace, being made of animal sinew, probably shrank in the
wet so that it looks like a garrotte.
Mr Connolly said: “We do not have evidence from this body of ritual sacrifice in Iron Age Cheshire.
We musn’t write it into the books until we have evidence. That is disrupting history. That is not
historical evidence. It wouldn’t stand up in court.”
J. D. Hill, an Iron Age curator, wrote that their interpretation was based on an assessment by Iain
West, the forensic science pathologist, before his death in 2001.
Dr Hill maintains that Lindow Man was strangled: “There was a loop of sinew around his neck, tied
with an unusual series of knots, which was extremely tight around his neck and left a well- defined
mark on the front and sides of his throat. If this had been worn as an ornament in life, it would have
been very tight. It was more probably used as a garrotte.”
ETHICAL DEBATE
REBURY OR RESEARCH????
• “We have objectified him into an ‘it’,” admits Bryan
Sitch, head of humanities at the Manchester Museum,
“perhaps because it's easier psychologically to do so.
But personally I can't help feeling the remains of a
human body are different from a bronze pot, a flint
arrow or an Iron Age sword.”
• It is precisely this tension that has led to debate about
how Lindow Man, and indeed other human remains,
should be displayed. According to Bryan, one of the
purposes of the exhibition is to “explore the 'vexed
subject' of how we treat human remains”.
HAD
Honoring the Ancient Dead
• The remains of Lindow Man, unearthed in
1984, have been held in the British Museum
ever since. HAD is involved in the temporary
loan of this ancestor's remains to the
Manchester Museum, the related repatriation
campaign and debate about whether or not
he should be reburied.
STUDENT RESEARCH
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TOLLUND MAN
GRAUBALLE MAN
WINDEBY GIRL
YDE GIRL
WEERDINGE MEN
PERUVIAN MUMMIES (Lady of Cao)
SCYTHIAN MUMMIES ( Siberian Ice Maiden)
With reference to one of the above, students
are to research and make brief notes under
the following headings
Discovery
Tests done on skeletons and artefacts
Theories/debates
Conclusions on manner of death
Ethical issues?
These notes ( no longer than A4 in total will be
shared with the rest of the class)