Transcript Management 9e - Kreitner

Knowledge Objectives
1. Identify need-based theories and explain their practical
management applications.
2. Describe expectancy theory and management
implications
3. Describe how goal setting motivates performance.
4. Explain how job enrichment increases the motivating
potential of jobs.
5. Distinguish extrinsic and intrinsic rewards
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Motivation is a concept invented by people to
help explain behavior
The concept is based on our personal
understanding that behavior is the result of
internal intentions and external factors
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Motivation Theories
• Theories of Motivation
– Need Based
• Maslow (Need Hierarchy)
• Herzberg (Motivators & Hygiene Factors)
• McClelland (Power, Affiliation, Achievement)
– Expectancy theory
– Goal-setting theory
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Motivation Theories (cont’d)
• Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
– People have needs, and when one need is relatively
fulfilled, other emerge in predictable sequence to take
its place.
– Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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Physiological needs: food, water, sleep, and sex.
Safety needs: safety from the elements and enemies.
Love needs: desire for love, affection, and belonging.
Esteem needs: self-perception as a worthwhile person.
Self-actualization: becoming all that one can become.
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Motivation Theories (cont’d)
• Relevance of Maslow’s Theory for
Managers
– Beyond physical and safety needs, which
higher order need will emerge cannot be
predicted.
– Fulfilled needs do not motivate .
– Effective managers anticipate individuals’
needs and provide opportunities for fulfillment.
– Satisfying esteem needs provides managers
with greatest opportunity to motivate
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performance.
Motivation Theories (cont’d)
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
– A theory of motivation based on job
satisfaction.
– Dissatisfiers - factors associated with the
context of the job or work environment .
– Satisfiers: factors associated with the nature of
the task itself (job content).
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Motivation Theories (cont’d)
• Implications of Herzberg’s Theory
– Satisfaction is not the opposite of
dissatisfaction.
– Must think carefully about what motivates
employees.
• Meaningful, interesting, and challenging (enriched)
work
– Problems with theory
• Satisfaction- job performance link is at best weakly
supported.
• One person’s dissatisfier is another person’s satisfier7
(needs are not person-specific).
Motivation Theories (cont’d)
• McClelland’s Need Theories
– High NAch individuals avoid high and low risk
situations (e.g., achievement by chance and
achievement without challenge)
– High NAff individuals prefer high contact
social environments
– High NPow individuals prefer organizing the
efforts of others
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Useful Concept
• Locus of Control (internal vs. external)
– belief that positive/negative outcomes are
contingent upon his/her behavior
– result of prior learning
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Motivation Theories (cont’d)
• Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
– Models the strength of motivation by perceived
probabilities of success.
• Expectancy: one’s subjective belief or expectation
that one thing will lead to another.
– A basic expectancy model
• Motivational strength increases with probabilities of
success for effort-performance and performancereward links, and the value attached to the reward.
[M = E * I * V]
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Motivation Theories (cont’d)
• Relevance of Expectancy Theory to
Managers
– Expectations are influenced by managerial
actions (e.g., reward systems and organizational
support).
– Training increases employee confidence in their
effort-performance linkage.
– Listen for employees’ own perceived
performance-reward probabilities.
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Motivation Theories (cont’d)
• Goal-Setting Theory
– Goal setting: the process of improving
performance with measurable outputs,
objectives, deadlines, quality standards, etc..
• A General Goal-Setting Model
– Properly conceived goals trigger a motivational
process that improves performance.
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Motivation Theories (cont’d)
• Characteristics of effective goals:
• Specificity makes goals measurable.
• Difficulty makes goals challenging.
• Participation gives personal ownership of the goal.
• How Do Goals Actually Motivate?
– Goals are exercises in selective perception.
– Goals encourage effort to achieve something specific.
– Goals encourage persistent effort.
– Goals foster creation of strategies and action plans.
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Motivation Theories (cont’d)
• Practical Implications of Goal-Setting
Theory
– The ability to set goals can be transferred
readily to any performance-based environment.
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Motivation Through Job Design
• Job Design
– The tasks required by organizational strategy,
technology, and structure.
• Strategy One: Do not change task
– If task cannot be changed - improve motivation
through
• Realistic job previews.
• Job rotation.
• Limited exposure: Using incentive such as
contingent time off (CTO) to motivate performance.
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Motivation Through Job Design
(cont’d)
• Strategy Two: Change Task
– Job enlargement: combining two or more
specialized tasks (horizontal loading) to
increase motivation.
– Job enrichment: redesigning a job to increase
its motivating potential by introducing planning
and decision-making responsibility (vertical
loading) “Re-Skilling”.
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Motivation Through Job Design
(cont’d)
• Core Dimensions of Work
– Skill variety: the variety of activities required in
carrying out the work.
– Task identity: the completion of a “whole” and
identifiable piece of work.
– Task significance: how substantial an impact
the job has on the lives of other people.
– Autonomy: the freedom, independence, and
discretion that one has to do the job.
– Job feedback: how much performance feedback
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the job provides to the worker.
Motivation Through Rewards
• Extrinsic Rewards
– Payoffs granted to the individual by other
rewards.
• Money, employee benefits, promotions, recognition,
status symbols, and praise.
• Intrinsic Rewards
– Self-granted and internally experienced
payoffs.
• Sense of accomplishment, self-esteem, and selfactualization.
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Motivation Through Rewards
(cont’d)
• Improving Performance with Extrinsic
Rewards
– Rewards must satisfy individual needs.
• Cafeteria compensation: a plan that allows
employees to select their own mix of benefits.
– Employees must believe effort will lead to
reward.
– Rewards must be equitable.
– Rewards must be linked to performance.
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