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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Chapter 7
Physical and Cognitive
Development in Early Childhood
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Physical Development
in Early Childhood
Skeletal growth:
new epiphyses emerge
lose baby teeth
Brain development:
rapid growth of the prefrontal cortex
hemispheres continue to lateralize
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Handedness
Reflects dominant cerebral
hemisphere:
right-handed (90%)—
left hemisphere
left-handed (10%)—
both hemispheres
Jointly influenced by
nature and nurture:
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position in uterus
practice
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Brain Development in
Early Childhood
Left hemisphere especially active:
language skills
handedness
Links among parts of
the brain increase:
cerebellum
reticular formation
hippocampus
corpus callosum
Figure 7.2
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Influences on
Physical Growth and Health
Heredity and hormones:
growth hormone
thyroid-stimulating
hormone
Nutrition
Infectious disease:
malnutrition
immunization
Childhood injuries
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Nutrition in Early Childhood
Appetite declines
Wariness of new foods is adaptive
Needs a high-quality diet
Imitates others’ food choices
Poor-quality diet is associated with
cognitive deficits and behavior problems
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Infectious Disease
and Malnutrition
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Poor diet depresses
immune system
Illness reduces appetite
Diarrhea a danger in
developing countries;
can be helped by
oral rehydration therapy
zinc supplements
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Immunizations
About 30% of U.S.
children lack
immunizations
Reasons include
cost
parents’ stressful daily
lives
misconceptions about
vaccine safety
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Factors Related to
Childhood Injuries
Gender and temperament
Poverty, single parenthood, low parental
education
Societal conditions:
international differences
teenage parents
shortage of high-quality child care
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
International
Death Rates
Due to Injury
Figure 7.3
(Adapted from World Health Organization, 2008.)
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Motor Development
in Early Childhood
Gross-motor skills:
balance improves
gait smooth and rhythmic by age 2
upper- and lower-body skills combine into
more refined actions by age 5
greater speed and endurance
Fine-motor skills:
self-help: dressing, eating
drawing and printing
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Progression of Drawing Skills
Scribbles
First representational forms:
draws first recognizable
pictures: 3 years
draws boundaries
and tadpole people:
3–4 years
More complex
drawings: 5–6 years
Early printing: 4–6
years
Figure 7.4
(Left: Reprinted by permission from Artful Scribbles by Howard Gardner.
Available from Basic Books, an imprint of The Perseus Books Group.
Copyright © 1982. Right: From E. Winner, “Where Pelicans Kiss Seals,”
Psychology Today, 20[8], August 1986, p. 35. Reprinted by permission
from the collection of Ellen Winner.)
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Piaget’s
Preoperational Stage
Ages 2 to 7
Gains in mental representation:
make-believe play
symbol–real-world relations
Limitations in thinking:
egocentrism
lack of conservation
lack of hierarchical classification
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Early Childhood
Development of Make-Believe
With age, make-believe gradually
detaches from real-life
conditions
becomes less
self-centered
becomes more complex
Sociodramatic play
develops
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Benefits of
Make-Believe Play
Contributes to cognitive and social skills
Strengthens mental abilities:
sustained attention
memory
language and literacy
creativity
regulation of emotion
perspective taking
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Dual Representation
Viewing a symbolic object as both
an object and a symbol
Strengthens around age 3
Adult teaching can help:
experiences with maps, photos,
drawings, and make-believe play
pointing out similarities of symbols to
real world
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Egocentrism
Failure to distinguish others’
viewpoints from one’s own
Figure 7.5
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Animistic Thinking
Belief that inanimate
objects have lifelike
qualities
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Conservation
Understanding that physical
characteristics remain the same
when appearance changes:
Centration: focus on one aspect to
neglect of others
Irreversibility: inability to mentally
reverse a series of steps
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Piagetian Conservation Tasks
Figure 7.6
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Piaget’s
Class Inclusion Problem
Figure 7.7
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Follow-Up Research on
Preoperational Thought
Egocentrism
Logical
thought
Categorization
Able to take others’ perspectives
Animistic thinking results from
incomplete knowledge of objects
Conservation evident on simplified
tasks
Reasons by analogy about
physical changes
Hierarchical classification evident
in everyday knowledge
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Evaluation of Piaget
Development of logical operations is
gradual
Disagreement over whether a
preoperational stage really exists
some experts deny the stage approach
others support a flexible stage notion—a
related set of competencies develops over
an extended period
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Vygotsky’s
Sociocultural Theory
Private speech
Zone of proximal
development
Scaffolding: support
of an “expert”
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Children’s Private Speech
For Piaget, “egocentric speech”
For Vygotsky, the foundation for all higher
cognitive processes
Serves a self-guiding function; increases
during challenging tasks
Gradually internalized as silent, inner
speech
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Zone of Proximal Development
Scaffolding:
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Adults aid learning
by adjusting support to
child’s level of
performance
Effectiveness varies
culturally
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Evaluation of
Vygotsky’s Theory
Helps us understand cultural variation in
cognition
Focuses on language, deemphasizes
other routes to cognitive development
Says little about how basic elementary
capacities (motor, perceptual, attention,
memory, and problem-solving skills)
contribute to higher cognitive processes
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Gains in
Information Processing
Attention:
inhibition, planning
Memory:
recognition, recall,
episodic memory
Theory of mind:
false belief
Emergent literacy: Active efforts to
construct knowledge through informal
experience.
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Recognition and Recall
Recognition
Recall
Noticing that a
Generating a mental
stimulus is
representation of an
identical or similar
absent stimulus
to one previously More difficult than
experienced
recognition
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Episodic Memory
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Scripts: memory
for familiar everyday
events
Autobiographical
memory: memory
for one-time events
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Autobiographical Memory
Improves with cognitive and
conversational skills
Influence of adult interaction:
elaborative style: fosters
organized and detailed personal
stories
repetitive style: weak at promoting
autobiographical recall
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
The Young Child’s
Theory of Mind
Early awareness of mental life: infancy
through age 3
Mastery of false belief tasks: around age 4
Factors contributing to mastery of false
belief:
language
executive function
social experiences
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Fostering Emergent Literacy
Language skills:
phonological awareness
vocabulary and grammar
Informal literacy experiences:
games
interactive reading
writing
Books for low-SES
families
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Early Childhood
Mathematical Reasoning
Ordinality:
order relationships
between quantities
14–16 months
Cardinality:
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when counting, last
number is the total
3½–4 years
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Features of a High-Quality
Home Environment
Stimulation:
toys, games, reading
language
academic
Physical organization
Emotional support
Modeling and encouragement
Variety in stimulation
No physical punishment
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Types of Preschool
Child-Centered
Children select
from wide variety
of activities
Learn through
play
Academic
Teachers structure
learning
Formal lessons:
letter, numbers,
colors, shapes
repetition and drill
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Vocabulary Development
Fast-mapping:
object names
verbs
modifiers
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Coins new words
Uses metaphors
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Supporting
Early Childhood Language
Conversation with adults
Recasts: restructuring
inaccurate speech to
correct form
Expansions: elaborating
on children’s speech
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