Transcript Skill Formation and Employment Assurance in India

Skill Formation in the
Unorganised / Informal Sector
in India
Ravi Srivastava
Professor, CSRD, JNU
&
Former Member, NCEUS
Skill Defined

An acquired and practiced ability or to a qualification needed to
perform a job or certain task competently. It is a multidimensional
concept. (World Employment Report 1998)

Ability to direct human energy efficiently to achieve desired goals. It
is one of the attributes that generate knowledge resources, the others
being technology, organisation, information and education skill.
(Planning Commission’s Committee on India Vision 2020)

‘Marketable skill’ --- to any skill / expertise / ability that has market
value or has the potential of being utilised for generating
income/employment.

Marketable skill, whether acquired through formal or informal means,
irrespective of whether it is being marketed or not, whether the
intention is to market it or not, is considered skill. (NSS).

“Formal skills” -- those developed in a structured and standardised
manner and where the training outcomes are measured/assessed
according to some objective parameters
Job and Skill hierarchy
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We would expect to find a close relationship between the level of skills
and job hierarchy, with workers at the lowest level having the lowest
level of skills (unskilled).
However, level of skills does not alone decide the workers position in the
job hierarchy.
Also important is the type of skill, its demand, and marketability. Here,
the role of formal skills.
But apart from the worker’s skills, other endowments and level of
education, a workers place of the worker in the job structure also depends
upon the worker’s personal and social attributes (i.e. social backround
and gender ) and level of education
General issues in Skill Development
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Need for continuous and lifelong learning
It is an area where typically markets might not deliver optimum
volumes of skill that economies need because of ‘externalities’
Issues of who will provide it, where it will be provided, who will
bear the costs
Demand led or supply led,
Supply-demand mismatches
Preponderance of employment in the informal sector of the
economy – heterogeneous – training needs too varied complex
Focus on large proportion of youth in the population
The informal sector in India
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In India, 86 5 workers are employed in the informal sectors and 92.5
% are formal workers (including 45 % workers in the formal sector).
In the economy as a whole, 58.5 % workers are self-employed, 28 %
are casual workers and only 15 % are regular workers.
In the informal sector, 64 % workers are in agriculture. Both in
agriculture and non-agriculture, self-employed workers predominate
(65% and 63% respectively), and regular workers are a minuscule
(0.6% and 6.7 % respectively). Hence lack of stable employment
relationships dominate the informal sector.
The informal sector is characterised by great heterogeneity and low
productivity.
Size and Distribution of the Organised and
Unorganised Sector Workers by Industry & Status
2004 – 05
Agriculture
Non-agriculture
All
Organised Unorganised Total Organised Unorganised Total Organised Unorganised Total
Number of Workers ( Millions)
Selfemployed
Regular
Workers
Casual
Workers
Total
Selfemployed
Regular
Workers
Casual
Workers
Total
Percentage
to total
2.3
1.2
2.5
6.1
38.1
163.9 166.2
2.9
89.2 92.1
5.2
253.1 258.2
2.8
41.9
24.8 66.7
43.2
26.4 69.5
87.4 89.9
11.7
28.1 39.8
14.2
115.5 129.7
62.6
394.9 457.5
1.6
252.8 258.9
56.5
142.1 198.5
Percentage Distribution of Workers
5.1
62.8 46.4
8.3
64.1 56.5
1.1
74.3
17.4 33.6
69.0
6.7 15.2
41.8
34.6 34.7
20.7
19.8 20.0
22.7
29.2 28.3
100.0
100.0 100.0
100.0
100.0 100.0
100.0
100.0 100.0
2.4
97.6 100.0
28.4
71.6 100.0
13.7
86.3 100.0
20.1
64.8 64.2
0.6
Relationship between Sector and Type of
Employment (UPSS), All Workers 1999-2000 &
2004-05
Sector/Worker
Informal/Unorganised
sector
Formal/Organised
sector
Total
Total Employment (Millions)
Informal/Unorganised Formal/Organised
worker
worker
1999 – 2000
341.3 (99.6)
1.4 (0.4)
20.5(37.8)
33.7 (62.2)
361.7 (91.2)
35.0 (8.8)
Total
342.6
(100.0)
54.1
(100.0)
396.8
(100.0)
2004 – 2005
Informal/Unorganised
sector
Formal/Organised
sector
Total
393.5 (99.6)
1.4 (0.4)
29.1 (46.6)
33.4 (53.4)
422.6 (92.4)
34.9 (7.6)
394.9
(100.0)
62.6
(100.0)
457.5
(100.0)
Informal Sector and Skill Training
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Special focus on perceived benefits of training, motivation of
workers, length and timing , costs to workers and sharing of burden
– in the context of heterogeneity of the sector.
Benefits unlikely to be directly perceived – greater element of
externality and market failure.
Type and content of training will be different:
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Need to focus from basic literacy and numeracy to technical training to social
networking and problems relating to balance home and workplace duties
Training would need to build up capabilities to shift from one profession to
another – multiskilling
Social competencies’ and technical skills that might be industry or trade based
need to be focused on. Social competency, defined as ‘the ability to co-operate,
communicate and represent collective interests’ is central to conducting a
business as much as the technical aspects of the industry itself.
Combining skill training with livelihood promotion.
Status of Education and Skills in the Informal
Sector
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Sources of data –The National Sample Survey Rounds (1993-94 and
2004-05).
NSS 1993-94 – all workers, NSS 2004-05 – youth (15-29 years).
Mean Years of Schooling 2004-2005
Rural Unorganised Agricultural Workers
Employment status
Agricultural labourer
Self-employed in agriculture (cultivators)
Agricultural workers
Male
2.4
4.5
3.7
Female
1.0
1.9
1.6
Total
1.8
3.4
2.8
Non-agricultural Workers
Rural
Urban
Total
Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
Unorganised sector: Casual 3.6
1.5
3.3
4.3
2.1
3.9
3.8
1.7
3.5
Unorganised sector:
7.0
5.6
6.8
7.1
4.8
6.7
7.1
5.0
6.7
Regular Workers (RW)
Unorganised sector: Self
5.3
2.9
4.7
7.7
5.1
7.2
6.5
3.8
5.9
Employed
Unorganised sector (total) 5.1
2.9
4.6
7.0
4.7
6.6
6.1
3.7
5.6
Unorganised worker in
7.9
7.2
7.7
8.8
9.6
9.0
8.5
8.5
8.5
OS: RW
Unorganised worker in
5.3
4.0
5.0
7.4
7.3
7.4
6.4
5.5
6.2
OS
Organised Sector (OS)
7.6
5.7
7.2 10.1
10.1
10.1 9.1
8.1
9.0
(total)
All workers
5.7
3.6
5.2
8.1
6.3
7.7
6.9
4.9
6.5
Employment Status
Educational Attainment of Workers aged 15 and
above by Sector, 2004-2005
100%
Percentage of Workers
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Male
Female
Total
Unorganised Sector
Illiterate & Below Primary
Male
Female Total
Organised Sector
Primary
Middle
Male
Female Total
All Workers
Secondary & Above
Skill Levels in 1993-1994
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Approximately 10 per cent of population reported as having skills (91.2
million) – 1993-94 - only refer to the lower level skills
 Rural Men(10%); Rural Women (6.3 %)
 Urban Men (19.6%); Urban Women (11.6%)
Skills considered predominantly formal are: Stenographer; machineman;
fitter, die-maker; electrician; repair of electronic goods; motor vehicle
driver and midwife (urban)
The skills considered predominantly informal are: fisherman; miner,
quarryman; spinner including charkha operator; weaver; tailor, cutter;
carpenter; mason; bricklayer; shoemaker, cobbler; moulder; blacksmith;
goldsmith; silversmith; boatman; potter; midwife (rural); basket maker,
wick product maker; toy maker; brick maker; tile maker; bidi maker; bookbinder; barber; mud-house builder & thatcher and Others
Percentage of Workers with Skills, 1993-94
Male
Formal skills
3.4
Informal skills
13.9
Any marketable skill 7.3
Rural
Urban
Total
Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
0.2 2.3 12.1
3.9 10.3 5.6
0.7 4.0
11.9 13.2 22.4 25.9 23.2 16.1 13.9 15.4
12.1 5.5 34.5 29.7 33.5 21.7 14.6 19.4
Skill Levels (15 -29 years), 2004-2005
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Only 11.5 per cent of those in the age-group 15-29 have received (or
were receiving) any training, whether formal or informal
3.8 per cent of the population with formal training
Largest share of youth population with formal skills in Kerala (15.5
%), followed by Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Himachal and Gujarat.
The lowest incidence of formal training was in Bihar (0.5 %)
Among those trained or undergoing formal training, Maharastra
accounted for 21.7 % share. Kerala and Tamil Nadu had more than
10 per cent share in the skilled youth population of population with
formal skills - all southern and western states
The most sought after field of formal vocational training was
‘computer trades’ (nearly 30 per cent).
For men the next most popular trades were electrical and electronic,
mechanical engineering, ‘driving’, ‘civil engineering’, health and
paramedical and office and business work’
Among women there was a concentration of vocational training in
computers followed by ‘textile related trade’ (22 per cent), followed
by ‘health and paramedical and office and business work
Percentage of Persons
Percentage of Population with Skills in the age group
15 -29, 2004-05
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
9.4
7.7
5.8
4.5
3.8
3.1
M ale
Female
Formal S kill
Total
Informal S kill
Percentage of Workers in Age-group 15 – 29 Years by Status
of Vocational Training, Age-group in each Sector of
Employment, 2004-2005
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5.4 million workers who
received formal training in this
age group, 3.4 million workers,
accounting for 63 per cent of
total trained people, belonged to
the unorganised sector
Among the informally trained,
17 m were in the unorganised
sector
Handful of trades where the
incidence of formal training is
higher in the informal sector.
These are: textile related trades;
handicraft/artisan/cottage based
production; and driving and
motor mechanic work
Usual Status
Unorganised
Formal Non-formal
Male
2.6
12.9
10.1
10.7
Total
3.6
12.6
Female
Unorganised
2.3
11.7
14.2
9.4
Total
3.3
11.5
Persons
Unorganised
2.5
12.5
11.0
10.4
3.5
12.2
Organised
Organised
Organised
Total
Total
15.4
(86.9)
20.8
(13.1)
16.1
14.03
(91.5)
23.61
(8.5)
14.84
15.0
(88.4)
21.4
(11.6)
15.7
Percentage of Workers
Skills of Workers (15 – 29 years) by Employment
Status and Sector, 2004-2005
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
SE
RW
CL
All
Unorganised Sector
Formal Skills
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SE
RW
CL
All
Organised Sector
SE
RW
CL
All
All Workers
Informal Skills
Certain industries, across both the unorganised and organised sectors, which absorb
more formal training - Health & Social Work, Real Estate, Finance, Education and
Public Administration
In a few sectors such as education, public administration and construction is
estimated of formally trained as being higher in the unorganised sector
Industries in which formal skills are low but the percentage of workforce with any
skills is quite high, such as manufacturing, construction, trade, hotels, and
community and personal services are clearly those where there is prima facie
requirement of developing expanded formal training systems
Percentage of Persons in 15 – 29 Years with
Vocational Training by Educational Attainment
Level and Gender, 2004-2005
Educational
Attainment
Levels
Illiterate & Below
Primary
Primary
Middle
Secondary
HS
Diploma/
Certificate
Graduate & Above
Total
Total
Total
Total
Non- (With
Non- (With
Non- (With
Formal formal Skill) Formal formal Skill) Formal formal Skill)
Males
Females
Persons
0.3
10.7 11.0
0.2
6.4
6.7
0.2
8.1
8.3
0.6
1.2
4.1
9.8
12.2
10.6
8.1
5.6
12.7
11.8
12.2
15.4
0.5
1.5
3.2
7.3
6.7 7.3
6.4 8.0
5.0 8.2
3.5 10.8
0.6
1.3
3.7
8.7
9.7
8.9
6.8
4.7
10.3
10.2
10.6
13.5
70.4
2.9 73.3
68.3
2.7 71.0
69.7
2.8 72.5
17.5
4.5
4.5 22.0
9.4 13.9
17.4
3.1
2.8 20.2
5.8 8.9
17.5
3.8
3.7 21.2
7.7 11.5
Poverty, Social Group and Skill
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The incidence of formal training is fairly high only for the middle and
high income groups
Systematic association between income and training status is not the
case with non-formal training which is fairly dispersed across the lower
income groups
Share of persons with formal skills increases from STs, SCs, OBCs to
Others in that order \
In most cases in India, skills are acquired through inter-generational
learning and/or systems of informal apprenticeships. Informal skills, as
we show below, are distributed across a wider cross section of the
population
Highest proportion of informally trained people is in the lowest
consumption expenditure categories
Since traditional manufacturing skills are the highest in the caste
groups presently classified as Other Backward Classes (OBC), the
highest proportion of people with such skills are in this group, followed
by the ST, SC and Other Caste groups
LOGIT MODEL: Dependent Variable
Vocational Training (Have training
Formal and Informal/No training)
Variable
Constant
Sector
Rural(R)
Urban
Sex
Female(R)
Male
Education
Illiterate & Below Primary(R)
Primary & Middle
Secondary & Above
Poverty Status
Below Poverty Line(R)
BPL to 2*Poverty Line
More then 2* Poverty Line
Socio-religious
ST(R)
SC
OBC
Others
Coefficient Odds Ratio
-7.298
0.648*
1.913
0.133*
1.142
1.177*
3.229*
3.244
25.243
0.457*
1.250*
1.579
3.492
0.851*
0.684*
0.529*
2.342
1.983
1.698
LOGIT MODEL: Dependent
Variable - Persons with Informal
Vocational Training
Variable
Constant
Sector
Rural(R)
Urban
Sex
Female(R)
Male
Education
Illiterate & below Primary(R)
Primary & Middle
Secondary & Above
Poverty Status
Below Poverty Line(R)
BPL to 2*Poverty Line
More then 2* Poverty Line
Socio-religious
ST(R)
SC
OBC
Others
Coefficient Odds Ratio
-2.906
-0.119*
0.524*
0.887
1.689
0.032
-0.507*
-0.030
-0.140*
1.032
0.602
.970
.869
0.081
0.387*
0.220*
1.084
1.473
1.246
Concentration of Women across Occupations, 2004-05
High Growth (> 5 %)
High
Computing Machine Operators
Education
Hair Dresser, Barber, Beautician, Related
(Mean Years Physicians, Surgeons, Scientific Medical,
of Education Para Medical
>= 8.0
Economists, Auditors, Social Scientists,
years)
Jurists
Teachers
Low
Tailors, Dress makers, Sewers,
Education
Upholsterers, Related
(Mean Years Salesmen, Shop Assistants, Related
of Education Stationary Engines, Equipment Operators,
< 8.0 years) Material Handling, Loaders
Tanners, Fell Mongers, Pelt Dressers,
Shoemakers, Leather Goods Makers
Construction Workers, Stone Cutter
House Keeper, Matron, Steward, Cooks,
Waiters, Bartenders
Maids, Related House keeping Service
(Others)
Production, Related (Others)
Jewelry, Precious Metal, Metal Engravers
Hotel, Restaurant Keepers
Administrative, Managerial, Proprietor
Low Growth(< 5%)
Book Keepers, Cashiers, Related
Clerical Related, Village Officials
Nurses, Other medical, Health
Technicians
Wholesale/ Retail Trade, Manufacturers
Agents, Technical Salesmen, Commercial
Travelers, Sales Worker (Other)
Protective Service Worker, Service
Worker
Agriculture & Allied
Spinners, Weavers, Knitting, Related
Glass Formers, Potters, Related
Tobacco Preparers, Tobacco Product
Makers
Labourers (Others)
Food Beverage Processors
Metal, Wood, Chemical Preparers,
Processors, Paper Makers
Launderers, Dry Cleaners, Pressers
Supply of training: Training providers & Types
Skill Training in India:
 Vocational education, Vocational training, and Sector specific programmes to
address issues of skill formation and enhancement
 Government led training & non-government led training (NG) & private sector)
 Altogether, 39.2 lakh or 3.92 million persons were receiving formal training (NSS,
2004-2005)
 The Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) and the Industrial Training Centres (ITCs)
provide the largest formal training base for about 7.88 lakh persons (20%); Men
26%; Women 7%
 Vocational education schools provided around 2 lakh training places (5 %)
 Institutions affiliated to the UGC and the polytechnics provided about 6.15 lakh
training places (9%)
 About 2.2 lakh persons were being trained in tailoring, embroidery and stitch craft
(6%) Men 0.8%; Women 16.4%
 24.8 per cent of the formally trained in the unorganised sector and 22.4 per cent of
the formally trained in the organised sector come from the ITIs
 Higher proportion of the trained workers in the organised sector are from the UGC
institutions and the polytechnics
 Higher proportion of those trained in tailoring, embroidery and stitch craft, and in
handloom, handicraft are in the unorganised sector
Training Capacity – Official data
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5465 ITIs/ITCs in India with a seating capacity of about 0.75
million
Southern states comprised of nearly 45 per cent
Apprenticeship Training Scheme of the government is available to
25.8 lakh workers
Vocational Schools offer places to about 1 million persons
Polytechnics offer about 3 lakh places
Vocational Education & Training
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Vocational Education - 3 categories of vocational education prevalent
in India today:
 Lower school stage (since 1993-94); Class 10+2 stage
(Vocationalisation of Secondary Education - since 1988-total
training capacity is estimated at about 10 lakh per annum); at the
specialised level
Vocational Training – Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD); Ministry of Labour and Employment (MOLE)
 MHRD – Minimum level of training required higher secondary
education
- through degree, diploma, certificate through Polytechnics
- 1244 Polytechnics with a training capacity of 2.95 lakhs
 MOLE – Minimum level of training required middle school
- through ITIs; ITCs; Industrial Apprenticeship;
- Craftsmen Training Scheme (Institutional training) and
Apprenticeship Scheme (Institutional plus On-job
training)
- 1987 ITIs (State Govt), 4847 ITCs (pvt),
Skill Development in Informal Sector
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MHRD –
 Community Polytechnics (669 institutions run scheme training 331000
per year)
 Jan Shikshan Sansthan (JSS)
 National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
MOLE –
 Skill Development Initiative (SDI) is a recent scheme , initiated in 2007
 one million persons would be trained or their existing skills tested and
certified under Modular Employable Skills (MES) framework
MSME - Entrepreneurship Development Programmes (EDP),
Entrepreneurship Skill Development Programmes (ESDP), KVIC’s Rural
Employment Generation Programme (REGP), Prime Minister’s Rojgar
Yojana (PMRY)
Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation - Swarna Jayanti
Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)
Ministry of Rural Development - The Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar
Yojana
(SGSRY)
Non-Government Initiatives and Skill Development
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Private Sector Initiatives for Skill Development
 entrepreneurs or corporates establish training centres/institutes
on a for-profit basis
 private corporations impart training to people who are absorbed
as skilled workforce in their own production units
 enter into partnerships with public agencies – for finance or
training delivery
 corporate houses set up public trusts or foundations (CSR)
NGO Initiatives
 E.g. GramVikas (Orissa); SEWA (Gujarat); MAYA Organic
(Bangalore);
Modular Employable Skills (MES) under the Skill
Development Inititiative Scheme (SDIS)
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For early school leavers existing workers in the
unorganised/informal sector.
Target of one million in five years.
Training provided through accredited Vocational training Providers
(VTPs) in the public & private sector which keep track of trainees
for 3 years.
Modest training and testing fees with 25% relaxation for SC/ST
candidates and reimbursement to VTP at prescribed rates on
successful completion of training.
Over 308 course curricula developed under MES.
Testing and certification of existing or acquired skills. Private sector
and industries’ bodies among those accredited for certification.
Coordinated Action on Skill Development

Prime Minister’s national Council on Skill development

To set broad policy goals, review progress and coordination.
Has set a goal of 500 million skilled persons by 2022 with focus on inclusiveness
and has set out strategy and core principles of skill training. National Skill
Development Coordination Board
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
National Skill Development Coordination Board (under the
Planning Commission)

Coordination of governmental initiatives at Centre and State level through evolving
suitable frameworks and guidelines for all aspects of skill development.

National Skill Development Corporation (under the Ministry of
Finance)
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Set up as a non profit company with an equity base of Rs. 100 m (49% private
sector) and with a Skill Development Fund.
NSDF charged with stimulating private sector initiative in skill development.

NSDC also to establish credible certification systems.
Some Conclusions from District Level Studies
(NCEUS)
Existing Training
 Inadequacy of training facilities for unorganised workers
 Poor & Variable quality of training.
 Unorganised workers acquire training mainly through informal
apprenticeships, followed by government sponsored programmes
Training Needs
 Need for up-grading skills in both the rural and urban areas
 Training strategy for rural entrepreneurs / workers involve selection
of the subjects- training imparted through non-conventional
institutions
 Certification of skills may be an integral part of the strategy
 A well thought-out strategy for marketing the produce of the
unorganised sector entrepreneurs
 In urban areas MES should be identified for imparting both short
and long term training in such identified skills along with
certification coupled with non-formal training programmes
Conclusions from Field based Studies (contd)
Training system and linkages
 Identification of master trainers at village, block and district level, and linking
them with formal training institutions
 Well designed training of trainers programme at formal institutions
 Post training work may be made available to women trainees near their place of
residence
 Financial support may be provided to subsidise wage losses of unorganised sector
workers during their training
Institutional Set up
 Nodal agency at district level to be set up to coordinate, implement, evaluate and
follow up the skill development programmes (different proposals). gender
sensitive training strategies
 District nodal agency, which will also serve as a Labour Market Information
Centre
 Nature of this nodal agency could be state specific
 Setting up training facilities at a decentralized level, at least at the block level, to
enable such workers to access them
Assessment of Training Expansion (NCEUS)

In order to work out the annual and plan-wise targets, the
Commission has estimated the labour force for the years up to 202122 using the last three rounds of the NSS and the population
projections prepared for the Planning Commission

During the Eleventh Plan, the annual training capacity would need
to about 12.5 million (up from about 5 m currently). A further
increase to 18 m would be required during the 12th Plan which will
go up to 25 m during the 13th Plan. If these targets are achieved,
then by the end of the 13th Plan, about half the total labour force of
623 million in 2021-22 would acquire formal skills
General Issues
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Formal and informal systems of skill development need to be
integrated with training being competency based, flexible, allowing
easy entry and exit to trainees at different points in their lives
Students should be able to move between vocational and general
education streams by providing them with multiple entry and exit
options
The MES provides the basis for expansion of training of informal
workers.
Training system should link skill development with livelihood
promotion - including identification of activities, credit and
technological support, capacity building and backward/forward
linkages – again part of the agenda of some governmental/nongovernmental inititiatives.
But beginnings are very modest and organisational, institutional and
financial issues still need to be addressed adequately.
Organisational Issues
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Skill development for the informal sector has to be structurally
different
Need for a Mission Approach for Development of Skills in the
Unorganised Sector, coordinated by the NSCDB.
NSDC should mainly provide financial support to NGOs and nonprofit organizations engaged in the training of informal sector workers
NCVT may be identified as the primary agency charged with setting of
standards, certification of skills and accreditation of providers for all
certificate based training
A state level structure should be established in the states which will
perform the same coordinating functions at the state level which the
NSDCB will perform at the national level
Skill development programmes for the unorganised sector should be
operationalised by a District Skill Development Council (DSDC) with
participation of all stake holders. Exact structure may be decided by
states.
Need to set up a Labour Market Information System (LMIS) at the
national, state and district levels linking various trainers and the
trainees
Issues (contd.)
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Consolidation and Strengthening of Training in the Existing
Livelihood and Social Sector Programmes
 the quality of training imparted under them should be improved
and standardized and these schemes be integrated under the
training plan of the DSDA. These schemes should also involve
formal certification procedures to ensure standardization and
minimum standards of quality. Over time, training under these
programmes should be linked to the MES framework
Provision of Formal Training to Informally Trained Workers
 formal certification systems being developed under the SDI are
able to reach out to the informal training system
 there can be incentives for the apprenticeships in the form of
reimbursement of fees charged on completion of the course, low or
no fees charged for those from SC/ST backgrounds, and so on
 continuously upgrade skills of master craftsmen/trainers
themselves in order to be able to cope with changing technology,
fashion and shifting markets
Issues (contd.)
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Focused Approach towards Improvement in Training in
Clusters
 effective partnership needs to be established between the DSDC
and all clusters in the district - representatives from different
stakeholders in the clusters
 several sectoral skill development programmes conducted by
different agencies function as part of the industries that are
organised in the form of clusters – need to be integrated and with
focus on workers at low level of skills
 incentive structures and costs to be incurred by potential trainees
have to take into consideration differences between clusters
Issues (contd.)
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Addressing Gender Issues in Skill Development
• content of training programmes for women may need to
integrate components of literacy, numeracy, business skills,
confidence skills in a bigger way
• done in a formal, participatory way through groups
• should address the special constraints faced by women in
participating in training - absence of mobility, need for child
care and gender segregation
• Women must also be encouraged to train for “hard” technical
skills as well in areas such as agriculture