Transcript Political Order in the 18th Century

Political Order in the 18th
Century
Of States, Enlightened Despots
and Armies
Europe in 18th Century
 1715 – 1789 : the final phase of the European
old order
1715 : end of reign of Louis XIV
1789 : start of French Revolution
 Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment = new
intellectual order based on rationalism and
secularism
 Political, social, economic and demographic
trends ushered a modern new order in Europe
Enlightened Absolutism?
 Can a ruler with absolute powers be enlightened?
 Idea of natural rights




Equality before the law
Freedom of religious worship
Freedom of speech and press
Right to assemble and hold property
 How should these natural rights be established and preserved?
 Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws : separation of powers
 Rousseau, The Social Contract : democracy and general will
 Idea of “enlightened ruler” who would
 Allow religious toleration, freedom of speech, right to private property
 Foster the arts, sciences and education
 Obey the laws instead of ruling arbitrarily and enforcing them equally for
all subjects
 The “enlightened ruler” offered the best hope for social reforms
 Frederick “The Great” II of Prussia
 Catherine the Great of Russia
 Joseph II of Austria-Hungary
A Survey of the European States
France of Louis XV
Duke of Orleans and Cardinal Fleury as regents
Expansion of commerce, trade and industry
1743, direct rule by Louis XV
Madame de Pompadour
Rule ended with mounting public debt, loss of
French territories (colonies), heavy taxes and a
hungry population
Louis XVI (1774 – 1792) – indecisive, weak and
ineffectual ruler and Marie Antoinette, queen
A Survey of the European States
 Prussia of Frederick William I
 Evolution of civil bureaucracy – the General Directory
 Role of Junkers, the landed aristocracy in the military
 Prussia under Frederick II the Great
 One of the best educated and cultured monarchs
 Well-versed in Enlightenment thought
 Established a single code of law that abolished the use of torture
except in cases of treason and murder
 Granted limited freedom of speech and full religious toleration
 BUT he was a conservative at heart
 Expanded the Prussia army and led it into wars – the Austrian
War of Succession and the Seven Years War which saw
Prussian dominance over Silesia, a part of the AustrianHungarian Empire
A Survey of the European States
 Hapsburg Austria-Hungary
 Maria-Theresa (1740 – 1780) and reforms after loss of Silesia in
the Austrian War of Succession
 Reforms sought to strengthen position of the Hapsburg monarchy
 She was staunchly Catholic and conservative
 Joseph II and his far-reaching reform program
 Abolished serfdom and gave peasants hereditary rights to their
holdings
 Abandoned economic restraints such as monopolies, trade barriers
and guild restrictions
 Instituted a new penal code that abolished death penalty and
instituted equality before the law
 Introduced complete religious toleration and restricted the Catholic
Church
 Effects of his reforms
 Alienated nobility and Church, confused the peasantry
 Alienated non-German nationalities with his attempt to impose
German as working official language
A Survey of the European States
 Russia of Catherine the Great (1762 – 1796)
German wife of Peter III, counted Diderot and Voltaire
among her correspondents
Claimed wish to reform Russia but knew she could not
alienate the nobility
1767, called for election of an assembly to debate on
new penal code
 In her Instructions, she questioned institutions of serfdom,
torture and capital punishment
 Nothing came out of the negotiations
Land policies favored the aristocrats
Nobility became more involved in local government
1785 Charter of Nobility
Repression of serfdom
Enlightened Absolutism Revisited
 Enlightened absolutism = relationship between ideas of
Enlightenment and practicalities of government
 Of the three rulers, only Joseph II sought radical reforms
based on Enlightenment ideals
 Catherine and Frederick were more motivated by political
necessities
 Their reforms, even though subscribing to Enlightened thought,
sought ultimately to strengthen the power of the state
 The hands of the so-called “absolute” monarchs were
also tied by the presence and vested interests of the
nobility upon whom their power base rested
War and Diplomacy
 System of “Balance of Power”
 Five major powers – Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Prussia
and Russia
 War of Austrian Succession (1740 – 1748)
 War involving all the major powers in Europe
 Prussia gained territory of Austrian Silesia
 The Seven Years War (1756 – 1763)
 Britain and Prussia vs Austria, Russia and France
 Fought both in Europe and in the colonies (North America)
 Development of the European Army
 Professional standing army became standard feature in Europe
 Social hierarchies reflected in army hierarchies
 Change in the conduct of war
 Elaborate maneuvers instead of pitched battles