Transcript Personality

Personality
Who
are
you ?
Who
am
I?
Who are we ?
See Ch. 11 in Text
Personality


An individual's unique pattern of thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors that persists over time
and across situations
Two key components
1.
2.
Personality refers to unique
differences
Personality is presumed to be stable &
enduring
Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories see behavior as a product of

Five propositions common to all psychodynamic theories
psychological forced within the individual, often outside
conscious awareness
Much of mental life is unconscious
 Mental processes such as emotions, motivations
& thought may conflict with one another
 Early childhood experiences strongly affect
personality development
 Our mental representation of ourselves and
others guides our interactions with others
 Development of personality involves learning to
regulate sexual and aggressive urges

Sigmund Freud


Best known of
psychodynamic theorists
Freud was first to stress the
unconscious

The unconscious is all the
ideas, thoughts, and
feelings of which we are
normally not aware
Freud’s
ideas form the basis for psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic Approach
 Developed
by Sigmund Freud
 Psychoanalysis is both an approach
to therapy and a theory of
personality
 Emphasizes unconscious motivation
- the main causes of behavior lie
buried in the unconscious mind
Structure of Personality
Psychoanalytic Approach
Rational,
planning,
mediating
dimension
of personality
Conscious
Ego
Superego
Moralistic,
judgmental,
perfectionist
dimension of
personality
Irrational,
illogical,
impulsive
dimension of
personality
Preconscious
Unconscious
Id
Information
in your
immediate
awareness
Information
which can
easily be
made
conscious
Thoughts,
feelings,
urges and other
information
that is difficult
to bring to
conscious
awareness
Conscious
- all things we are aware of at any given moment
Conscious
Ego
Superego
Preconscious
Unconscious
Id
Preconscious
- everything that can, with a little effort, be brought into consciousness
Conscious
Ego
Superego
Preconscious
Unconscious
Id
Unconscious
- inaccessible warehouse of anxiety-producing thoughts and drives
Conscious
Ego
Superego
Preconscious
Unconscious
Id
Psychoanalytic
Divisions of the Mind

Id - instinctual drives present at birth



Ego - develops out of the id in infancy



does not distinguish between reality and fantasy
operates according to the pleasure principle
understands reality and logic
mediator between id and superego
Superego - develops over time


internalization of society’s moral standards
responsible for guilt
Id
Collection of unconscious urges and
desired that continually seek expression
 Operates according to the

Pleasure Principle
i.e. seeks immediate pleasure and to avoid pain

Operates entirely in the unconscious mind
Ego
Mediates between reality, conscience
(superego), and instinctual needs (id)
 Operates according to the

Reality Principle

Operates at the conscious, preconscious,
and unconscious levels
Superego


The social and parental standards that have
been internalized
Conscience

Our sense of morality
 Ego
The standard of what one would like to be
We are not born with the superego, but it
develops over time
Operates at the conscious, preconscious &
unconscious levels



Ideal
Freud’s Development of Personality



Freud believed that personality development is
the result of various ways in which the sexual
instinct (also called the libido) is satisfied during
the course of life
There are several stages, each focusing on
different bodily areas
These stages are called the psychosexual stages
Defense Mechanisms

Anxiety is produced when the ego
cannot satisfy the demands of the id in a
way acceptable to the superego
 This anxiety causes feelings of uneasiness
and worry
 Ego may employ any of a number of
defense mechanisms to protect the
conscious mind from this anxiety
Defense Mechanisms

Denial


Repression


Attributing one’s feelings, motives, wishes on/to others
Identification


Unpleasant thoughts are excluded from consciousness
Projection


Refusal to acknowledge a painful reality
Taking on traits of others to avoid feeling incompetent
Regression

Reverting to childlike behavior
Defense Mechanisms

Intellectualization


Reaction Formation


Expression of exaggerated ideas and
emotions that are opposite of true feelings
Displacement


Thinking about stressful problems in an
abstract way to detach oneself from them
Shift repressed motives from an original
object to a substitute object
Sublimation

Redirecting repressed motives and feelings
into socially acceptable activities
Defense Mechanisms--Activity


Choose Five (5) of the mechanisms and prepare brief
scenarios representing each.
Depth 2-3 sentences…just be sure to fully explain the
response/reaction to clearly connect w/mechanism.
 Denial
 Repression
 Projection
 Identification
 Regression
 Intellectualization
 Reaction Formation
 Displacement
 Sublimation
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective
Were Freud’s theories
the “best of his time”
or were they simply
incorrect?
Current research
contradicts
many of Freud’s
specific ideas
Development does not
stop in childhood
Slips of the tongue are
likely competing
“nodes” in memory network
Dreams may not be
unconscious
drives and wishes
Freud’s Ideas as Scientific Theory
Theories must explain observations
and offer testable hypotheses
Few Objective Observations
Few Hypotheses
Freud’s theories based on his recollections &
interpretations of patients’ free associations,
dreams & slips of the tongue
Does Not PREDICT Behavior or Traits
Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories
 Culture-bound
ideas
 Freud
made no connection between
women’s subordinate status in society
and their sense of inferiority
 Psychodymanic
theories are largely
untestable in any scientific way
Post-Freudian Psychodynamic Theories
Carl Jung:
 Alfred Adler:
 Karen Horney:
 Erik Erikson:

Collective Unconscious
Individual Psychology
Focus on Security
Psychosocial Development
THEN…
 HUMANISTS:
 Abraham
 Carl
Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs
Rogers: Person-Centered Perspective
Carl Jung



Shared Freud’s emphasis on
unconscious processes
Personal Unconscious
 That part of the unconscious
mind containing an
individuals thoughts and
feelings
Collective Unconscious
 The part of the unconscious
that is inherited and
common to all members of
a species
Archetypes


Ideas/categories in the collective unconscious
Examples of archetypes
 Persona
 Our public self
 Anima
 Female archetype as expressed in male
personality
 Animus
 Male archetype as expressed in female
personality
Jung’s five (5) main archetypes:
The Self: the regulating center of the psyche and
facilitator of individuation
The Shadow: the opposite of the ego image, often
containing qualities that the ego does not identify with,
but possesses nonetheless
The Anima: the feminine image in a man's psyche
or
The Animus: the masculine image in a woman's psyche
The Persona: how we present to the world, usually
protects the Ego from negative images(acts like a mask)
Anima Projection:
The unindividuated man identifies with those
personal qualities that are symbolically
masculine.
He develops these potentialities and to some
extent integrates their unconscious
influences into his conscious personality.
However, he does not recognize qualities that
are symbolically feminine as part of his own
personality but rather projects them onto
women.
Anima Projection:
The unindividuated man identifies with those
personal qualities that are symbolically
masculine.
He will project his anima—those particular
characteristics and potentialities that are
significant components of his personal
unconscious and therefore carry a special
emotional charge—onto a few women for whom
he will then feel a strong and compelling emotion
(usually positive but occasionally negative).
Infatuation (an instant, powerful attraction for a
woman about whom he knows little) is one of the
signs of anima projection, as is a compulsive
possessiveness.
Animus Projection:
The unindividuated woman identifies with those
personal qualities that are symbolically feminine.
She develops these potentialities and to
some extent integrates their unconscious
influences into her conscious personality.
However, she does not recognize qualities
that are symbolically masculine as part of her
own personality but rather projects them
onto men.
Animus Projection:
The unindividuated woman identifies with those
personal qualities that are symbolically feminine.
She will project her animus—those particular
characteristics and potentialities that are
significant components of her personal
unconscious and therefore carry a special
emotional charge—onto a few men for whom she
will then feel a strong and compelling emotion
(usually positive but occasionally negative).
Infatuation (an instant, powerful attraction for a
man about whom she knows little) is one of the
signs of animus projection, as is a compulsive
possessiveness.
Anima Possession:
Since the unindividuated man has not consciously developed
any of his symbolically feminine qualities (e.g. emotion,
need for relatedness), his personality is apt to be taken over
or "possessed" by these qualities at times, so that his
emotional behavior and relationships may be acted out in
childish and immature ways that are apparent to others but
not to him.
Animus Possession:
Since the unindividuated woman has not consciously developed
any of her symbolically masculine qualities (e.g. logic, leadership,
need for independence), her personality is apt to be taken over or
"possessed" by these qualities at times, so that she appears
opinionated, argumentative, or domineering to others, though she
will not think of herself that way.
Anima/Animus Integration:
We can avoid anima/animus possession and withdraw
projections by integrating the contrasexual archetype into
consciousness, realizing we are cutting off our human
potential by recognizing and developing only those
symbolic qualities that match the sex of our bodies.
Integration of
the
Anima/Animus
is often termed
Androgyny.
Androgyny is
symbolized in
narratives
through
achievement of a
special bond
(frequently
sexual
union/marriage)
between the egobearer and the
anima/animus
figure.
Attitude Types
 Extraverts
 Focus
on external world & social life
 Introverts
 Focus
on internal thoughts & feelings
 Jung felt that everyone had both
qualities, but one is usually dominant
Personality Types
 Rational
individuals
 People who regulate their actions
through thinking and feeling
 Irrational individuals
 People who base their actions on
perceptions, either through their
senses or intuition
Personality Types
TYPE A: “THE competitor/achiever“
TYPE B: “THE SOCIALIZER/dreamer”
TYPE C: “the detailed designer“
TYPE D: “the reticent, yet reliable ”
TYPE A: “Competitor/Achiever”
* Risk taker
* Very independent
* Direct, to the point (blunt): may alienate coworkers
* Dislike routine
* Competitive / Driven / High Achievers
* Entrepreneurs/Business/Government leaders
* Embrace change: especially if their idea.
* Look for practical solutions
* Prone to High Blood Pressure
* High sense of time urgency.
* Often work on own projects, not willing to share or delegate.
* Prone to being “workaholic”
* Studies reveal Type A's generally felt insecure at one point of
their lives and so they decided to fight the insecurity by
changing their lives and making achievements as fast as they
can.
TYPE B: “Socializer/Dreamer”
*Highly extroverted
*Love the spotlight: Entertaining
*Charismatic
*Relaxed/Easy-going
*Dreaming vs. Doing
*Creative & Imaginative
*Patient & Philosophical
*Non-competitive
*Common in Sales and marketing
*Can be achievers, but not as competitive as Type A's.
*May delay work and do it in the last moment
*May be procrastinators
*Often struggle with success due to procrastination, followthrough.
TYPE C: “Detailed Designer”
*Antithesis of Type “B”
*Introverted
*Detail-Oriented/Focused /Meticulous
*May have trouble communicating to/with other people.
*Talented crunching numbers &/or writing program code
*Tend to be very cautious and reserved
*Will not venture into something until all facts ckd out.
*Can spend a lot of time trying to find out how things work
and this makes them very suitable for technical jobs.
e.g. accountants, programmers, and engineers
*Not assertive and suppress their own desires even if there is
something that they dislike.
*Lack of assertiveness tends to result in stress & depression.
*More vulnerable to depression compared to type A & type B.
TYPE D: “Reticent, yet Reliable”
*Antithesis of Type “A”
*Not adventurous
*Resist change ~ Prefer routine
* Work behind the scenes with predictable results
* Reliable follower
* Resist responsibility: prefer to be told what to do
* Punctual, Consistent, Compliant
* Social Inhibition
* Pessimistic & Reticent
* Lack of self assurance
* May experience negative emotions like hostility, anxiety,
anger, depressed mood, tension and view of self.
* Research: 3X for future cardiovascular issues & risk for
clinical depression, anxiety and poor mental health:
“…due to increased levels of anxiety, irritation and depressed
mood across situations and time, while not sharing these emotions
with others because of fear of disapproval."
Personality Types
…but wait, there’s more…
•Not uncommon to find people with a blend of
personalities, particularly A-B and C-D.
•These basic personality types explain why some
people work well together and others do not.
•For example
~Type-A clashes with Type-D
simply because one is more adventurous than the other,
~Type-B clashes with Type-C
one exhibits extroverted personality-other introverted.
~Conversely, Type-A works well with Type-B
~And, Type-C works well with Type-D.
Personality Types
…and lastly…
•Personality traits, though fairly embedded through
our early years, can be -- and have been -- changed.
•There are many factors which design our primary
types: Nature AND Nurture.
•Certainly, genetics may play a guiding role as the
template.
•However, birth order, social experiences, activities,
benchmark moments, belief systems, culture,
necessity, demographic variables, family dynamics, etc.
all play a role to some extent.
Alfred Adler 1870 –1937
 Compensation
 Our
efforts to overcome
real or perceived
weaknesses
 Inferiority
 Fixation
Complex
on feelings of personal
inferiority that can lead to emotional
and social paralysis
Alfred Adler
Single "drive" or motivating force behind all
our behavior and experience.
Motivating force the striving for perfection.
-the desire we all have to fulfill our
potentials, to come closer to our ideal.
Basic motivation: compensation
-striving to overcome.
Our personalities = the ways in which we do
-- or don't -- compensate or overcome those
problems.
Alfred Adler
Striving for superiority = Teleology.
Unlike Freud, Adler saw motivation as a
matter of moving towards the future, rather
than being driven, mechanistically, by the
past.
So what makes so many of us selfinterested?
Adler says it's a matter of being
overwhelmed by our Inferiority
Alfred Adler
If overwhelmed by the forces of inferiority -whether it is your body hurting, people around
you holding you in contempt, or just the general
difficulties of growing up -- you develop an
Inferiority Complex.
Inferiority complex is a neurosis, a life-size
problem.
-One becomes shy & timid, insecure,
indecisive, cowardly, submissive, compliant
Begin to rely on people to carry you along, even
manipulating them into supporting you
Alfred Adler
You can also develop a Superiority Complex.
Superiority Complex involves covering up
inferiority by pretending to be superior.
Four psychological types
Ruling type. They are, from childhood on,
characterized by a tendency to be aggressive and
dominant over others.
Leaning type. They are sensitive people who have
developed a shell around themselves which
protects them, but they must rely on others to
carry them through life's difficulties.
Alfred Adler
Four psychological types cont.
Avoiding type.
-The lowest levels of energy, only survive
by avoiding life, especially other people.
-When pushed to the limits, tend to
become psychotic, retreating finally
into their own personal worlds.
Socially Useful type.
This is the healthy person, one who has
both social interest and energy.
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
 Viewed
anxiety as powerful
motivating force
 Environmental and social factors
seen as important
 Neurotic
trends
 Irrational
strategies for
coping w/ emotional
problems
Family Dynamics
Karen had on-going conflicts with her strict
father (a Sea Captain).
Karen's mother was more flexible.
She married man that shared some of these same
authoritarian qualities.
Her older brother, Brendt, was the ‘favorite’
child
Karen felt that she had been unwanted.
Karen was very attached to Brendt.
Depression
Karen Horney struggled w/ depression.
Her struggles/difficulties helped her
understand the dynamics of neurosis.
Her analysis of neurosis has been
recognized as very insightful, and her
theories are enjoying a renewal of
interest.
The Cause of Neurosis
Main source of neurosis:
>feelings of anxiety, obsessive thoughts and
a degree of social or interpersonal
maladjustment.
*in the experience of betrayal
*in not being loved
*in being helpless to bring about that
love.
Causes
Lack of genuine warmth/affection for the child.
Parent not necessarily abusive, but indifferent-unaware of effects of her/his behavior on child.
Translates into behaviors like:
* Unjust reprimands
* Unfulfilled promises
* Unpredictable changes between scornful
rejection and overindulgence
* Ridiculing independent thinking
* Spoiling child's interest in her/his pursuits.
First reaction is hostility.
But, as the child needs the parent,
and hostility threatens that bond,
hostility is repressed.
The repression of basic hostility
results in basic anxiety:
feeling lonely and helpless in a
hostile world.
“I Am not Worthy to Be Loved”
The "despised real self" says:
I am truly a disgraceful creature, a
bad person, someone that no one
can truly love…
But I Should…
The Ideal Self says:
“People would love me if I were kinder,
more athletic, more outgoing, more
unselfish, a better friend, parent, mate.”
They would love me if I were more
courageous, more disciplined, achieved
more…”
This is a Neurotic Solution to the
conflict --as no one can be such a person.
The Tyranny of the “Shoulds”
A person can be driven by these
demands of the ideal self.
These demands are impossible, the
attempts to satisfy the "shoulds" is
bound to fail.
Thus, self hate & feelings of false guilt
increase, as well as despair &
helplessness.
Alienation from the Self
When succumbing to the tyranny of
the "shoulds" individuals will:
Hate
themselves, not want to really
know themselves, want to run from
themselves
Lose their own creativity as they strive
to please
Feel despair -- helpless in the face of
their own behavior.
Horney's Concept of the Self
The Actual self: the person you actually are
--regardless of anyone's perceptions
The Real self: the core of your being, your
potential, need to be who you are truly
(the subjective view of the actual self).
The Despised Real self: negative view of
the self, based on the lack of love and
acceptance by others.
The Ideal self: the perfect self you think
you should be, so you can be loved.
How can I keep you from hurting me?
I'll be so nice… helpful, conforming, selfeffacing solution, moving toward people
I'll control things, manipulate, exploit,
attack if needed: the expansive solution of
moving against people
I'll grow my own protective shell, be
independent, rebellious, or not look at
painful things: the resignation solution:
moving away from people
If those Defensive Strategies Become a Lifestyle
Moving toward people leads to a COMPLIANT
personality with these traits:
Need for affection and approval
Need for a dominant partner
Moving against people leads to an AGGRESSIVE
personality with these traits:
Need for power, exploitation, prestige, admiration
Need for achievement
Moving away from people lead to a DETACHED
personality with these traits:
Need for perfection
Setting narrow limits to life
Some Auxiliary Defenses (1)
Externalization:
Other people become the center of the
neurotic's life. Result: feeling of inner
emptiness.
Creation of blind spots:
Inability to see how different one is
from one's ideal image
Compartmentalization:
Between various areas of life
e.g. business, family, church
Auxiliary Defenses (2)
Rationalization: e.g. I did this to make them
happy (no--to make them like you)
Excessive self-control: Don't want to be
caught in any emotion, vulnerability
Arbitrary rightness: Seemingly impulsive
decisions (to avoid the pain of real decision
making) that are then rationalized.
Elusiveness: Constant clouding of issues
Cynicism: Assuming that self-interest is the
only motivation in operation, and therefore
behaving that way oneself.
Humanistic Personality Theories
Humanistic view asserts the fundamental
goodness of people and their constant
striving toward higher levels of
functioning
 Does not dwell on past occurrences, but
rather focuses on the present and future

Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation is when one is
motivated by external factors, as opposed
to the internal drivers of intrinsic
motivation. Extrinsic motivation drives one
to do things for tangible rewards or
pressures, rather than for the fun of it.
Example
Supermarkets use loyalty cards and
discounts, airlines use air miles, companies
use bonuses and commissions. Extrinsic
motivation is everywhere.
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is when one is motivated by
internal factors, as opposed to the external
drivers of extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic
motivation drives one to do things just for the
fun of it, or because one believes it is a good or
right thing to do.
Example
Most people's hobbies are intrinsically
motivated. Notice the passion with which
people collect items or build detailed models.
Few people carry that passion into their
workplace.
Motivation Team Activity
1) Discuss activities, pursuits, etc. that you
would consider intrinsically motivating for you.
2) Discuss and respond to the statement below:
There is no such thing as intrinsic
motivation…we are always motivated by
some extrinsic reward in al that we do.
Agree?
Disagree?
Why?
The Humanistic Perspective
Maslow’s
Self-Actualizing
Person
Roger’s
Person-Centered
Perspective
“Healthy” rather than “Sick”
Individual: greater than the sum of test scores
Maslow & Self-Actualization
Self-Actualization
the process of fufilling our potential
• Studied healthy, creative people
• Eleanor Roosevelt, Abe Lincoln, Esteem
Tom Jefferson
Love Needs
• Self-Aware & Self-Accepting
Safety
• Open & Spontaneous
Physiological
• Loving & Caring
• Problem-Centered not Self-Centered
Abraham Maslow is a Humanistic
Psychologist.
•Humanists do not believe that human
beings are pushed and pulled by
mechanical forces, either of stimuli and
reinforcements (behaviorism) or of
unconscious instinctual impulses
(psychoanalysis).
•Humanists focus upon potentials.
•They believe that humans strive for an
upper level of capabilities.
•Abraham Maslow developed a Theory
of Motivation and Personality that has
influenced a number of different fields,
including education.
•This wide influence is due in part to
the high level of practicality of
Maslow's theory.
•This theory accurately describes many
realities of personal experiences.
Hierarchy Of Needs
Physiological Needs
Biological needs:
oxygen,
food, water, and a relatively constant
body temperature, etc.
The strongest needs because if a person
were deprived of all needs, the
physiological ones would come first in
the person's search for satisfaction.
(2) Safety
Adults have little awareness of their security
needs except in times of
~emergency or
~periods of disorganization in the social
structure (such as widespread rioting).
Children often display the signs of insecurity
and the need to be safe.
(3) Love, Affection and Belongingness
When needs for safety and physiological wellbeing are satisfied, the next class of needs for
love, affection and belongingness can emerge.
People seek to overcome feelings of loneliness
and alienation.
Involves both giving and receiving love,
affection & sense of belonging.
(4) Esteem
These involve needs for both self-esteem and
for the esteem a person gets from others.
Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based,
high level of self-respect and respect from
others.
When these needs are satisfied, the person feels
self-confident and valuable as a person in the
world.
When these needs are frustrated, the person
feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless.
(5) Self-Actualization
When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then
and only then are the needs for self-actualization
activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as:
a person's need to be and do that which the person
was "born to do." "A musician must make music, an
artist must paint, and a poet must write."
These needs make themselves felt in signs of
restlessness. The person feels on edge, tense, lacking
something, in short, restless.
If a person is hungry, unsafe, not loved or accepted,
or lacking self-esteem, it is very easy to know what
the person is restless about. It is not always clear
what a person wants when there is a need for self-
(6) Peak Experiences
Peak experiences are sudden feelings of intense
happiness and well-being, and possibly the
awareness of "ultimate truth" and the unity of all
things.
•Accompanying these experiences is a heightened
sense of control over the body and emotions, and a
wider sense of awareness, as though one were
standing upon a mountaintop.
•The experience fills individual w/ wonder & awe.
•She/he feels at one with the world and is pleased
with it; she or he has seen the ultimate truth or the
essence of all things.
Maslow states that parents, mentors, teachers, etc. should
respond to the potential an individual has for growing into a
self-actualizing person of his/her own kind. Ten points that
should be addressed are listed:
1. We should teach people to be authentic, to be
aware of their inner selves and to hear their
inner-feeling voices.
2. We should teach people to transcend their
cultural conditioning and become world
citizens.
3. We should help people discover their
vocation in life, their calling, fate or destiny.
This is especially focused on finding the right
career and the right mate.
4. We should teach people that life is precious,
that there is joy to be experienced in life, and
if people are open to seeing the good and
joyous in all kinds of situations, it makes life
worth living.
5. We must accept the person as he or she is
and help the person learn their inner nature.
From real knowledge of aptitudes and
limitations we can know what to build upon,
what potentials are really there.
6. We must see that the person's basic needs are
satisfied. This includes safety, belongingness,
and esteem needs.
7. We should refresh consciousness, teaching the
person to appreciate beauty and the other good
things in nature and in living.
8. We should teach people that controls are good,
and complete abandon is bad. It takes control to
improve the quality of life in all areas.
9. We should teach people to transcend the trifling
problems and grapple with the serious problems
in life. These include the problems of injustice, of
pain, suffering, and death.
10. We must teach people to be good choosers. They
must be given practice in making good choices.
Maslow Team Activity
1)Discuss where you are on the ‘pyramid’ –
and share with your team.
2) Discuss and respond to the statement below:
One must have a depth and breadth of
life experience(s) in order to truly
achieve self-actualization and/or peak
experiences.
Agree?
Disagree?
Why?
Erik Erikson

Eight stages of development
 Trust vs. Mistrust
 Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
 Initiative vs. Guilt
 Industry vs. Inferiority
 Identity vs. Role Confusion
 Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Generativity vs. Stagnation
 Ego Integrity vs. Despair
1902 –1994
Lawrence Kohlberg’s
1927 - 1987
Stages of Moral Development



Preconventional (preadolescence)
 “Good” behavior is mostly to avoid
punishment or seek reward
Conventional (adolescence)
 Behavior is about pleasing others and,
in later adolescence, becoming a good
citizen
Postconventional
 Emphasis is on abstract principles such
as justice, equality, and liberty
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
 Research
shows that many people
never progress past the conventional
level
 Theory does not take cultural
differences into account
 Theory is considered by some to be
sexist in that girls often scored lower
on tests of morality