Transcript 金融市场学
金 融 市 场 学
攀 登
金融市场学
债券
时间价值
货币是有时间价值的
金融工具分类与时间价值
简易贷款
年金
附息债券
贴现债券
现值和终值
简易贷款
年金
附息债券
P
c
c
c
1 r 1 r 2
r
贴现债券
P
FV
1 r T
到期收益率
简易贷款
年金
附息债券
贴现债券
c1
c2
cT F
P
2
1 Y 1 Y
1 Y T
利率
折算惯例
比例法
复利法
名义利率与实际利率
差别在于是否考虑了通货膨胀的影响
即期利率与远期利率
利率水平的决定
可贷资金模型
流动性偏好模型
利率的结构
预期假说
市场分割假说
偏好停留假说
债券特征
面值(Face or par value)
息票率(Coupon rate)
零息票债券
利息支付方式
债券契约
各类债券
国债
企业债
地方政府债券
海外债
创新债券
指数化债券
浮动和反向债券
Money Markets
US Treasury Bills (T-Bills)
Certificates of Deposit (CD)
Commercial paper (CP)
Bankers’ acceptances
Eurodollars
Repos and Reverses
Federal Funds
US Treasury Bills
Initial maturities are
91-182 days, offered weekly
52 weeks, offered monthly
Competitive and noncompetitive (10-20%) bids.
The investor buys the instrument at discount
bid-ask (spread) represents the profit for the dealer
quotes use the bank discount yield.
Exempt of state and local taxes.
Bank Discount Yield
$10,000 par T-bill at $9,600 with 182 DTM.
$400(360/182) = $791.21
thus the bank discount yield is 7.91%
rBD=(10,000-P)/10,000 ·360/n
effective annual yield is:
(1+400/9600)2-1=8.51%
bond equivalent yield is:
rBEY=(10,000-P)/P ·365/n
Certificates of Deposit
Time deposits with commercial banks.
It may not be withdrawn upon demand.
Large CDs can be sold prior to maturity.
Insured by FDIC up to $100,000
(Federal Depository Insurance Corporation)
Commercial Paper
Unsecured short term debt (corporations).
Maturity is up to 270 days.
CP is issued in multiples of $100,000.
Small investors buy it through mutual funds.
Most issues have credit rating.
Treated for tax purposes as regular debt.
LC backed (letter of credit) optional.
Bankers’ acceptances
Orders to a bank by a customer to pay a given sum at
a given date.
Backed by bank.
Traded in secondary markets.
Widely used in international commerce, because the
creditworthiness is supplied by a bank.
Eurodollars
Dollar denominated time deposits in foreign banks.
Most are for large amounts and with maturity of less
than 6 months.
Repos and Reverses
Repurchase agreements (RPs) used by dealers in
government securities.
Term repo has a maturity of 30 days or more.
Reverse repo is the result of a dealer finding an
investor buying government securities with an
agreement to sell them at a specified price at a
specified future date.
Federal Funds
Commercial banks that are members of the Federal
Reserve System (Fed) are required to maintain a
minimum reserve balance with Fed.
Banks with excess reserves lend (usually overnight) to
banks with insufficient reserves.
Brokers’ Calls
Brokers borrow funds to loan to investors who wish
to buy stock on margin.
The broker agrees to repay the loan upon the call of
the bank.
The rate is higher because of the credit risk
component.
LIBOR
London Interbank Offer Rate (LIBOR) is the rate at
which the large London banks lend among themselves.
This rate serves often as an anchor for floating rate
agreements which for example can be set at LIBOR
+ 3%
Yields on Money Market
Instruments
In general, money market instruments are quite safe.
However, T-bills are the safest of the money instruments.
As a result the other instruments provide a slightly
higher yield.
Fixed-Income Capital Markets
T-Notes - initial maturity of 10 years (or less).
T-Bonds - initial maturities of 10-30 years.
Par (also called face or principal) $1,000.
Interest (coupons) paid semiannualy.
Rate
Mo/Yr
Bid
Asked Chg.
83/4
Aug 00n 105:16 105:18
+8
Ask Yld
7.55
Rate coupon payment 83/4% of $1,000;
paid semiannually; $43.75 per bond each 6 mo.
Maturity = August 2000
n = note
Bid =105:16 means 10516/32=105.5
at the price $1055 buyer is willing to buy.
Ask=105:18 means 10518/32=105.5625
at the price $1055.625 seller is willing to sell.
Municipal Bonds (Munis)
Issued by state and local governments and agencies.
Interest (not capital gains!) is exempt from federal
taxes.
General Obligations are backed by the taxing power
of the issuer.
Revenue bonds are backed only by revenues from
specific projects.
Industrial Development bond is issued to finance a
private projects.
Interest from Munis
Is not subject to federal income tax.
Hence the yields are lower:
r (1- t) = rm
r
- before tax return on taxable bond
rm - return on municipal bond
t
- marginal tax rate
Attractive to wealthy investors.
Corporate Bonds
Used to generate long-term funds.
The primary difference is the default risk.
Backed by specific assets (like mortgages).
By the financial strength of the firm only (debentures).
Callable at a call price (firm).
Convertible, may be exchanged to a stock (investor).
债券条款
信用
赎回条款
转换条款
回售条款
浮动利率
违约风险和评级
评级公司
Moody’s Investor Service
Standard & Poor’s
Fitch (Duff and Phelps)
两个大类
投资类
投机类
评级机构使用的指标
偿债能力(Coverage ratios)
杠杆比率(Leverage ratios)
流动性比率(Liquidity ratios)
盈利能力(Profitability ratios)
现金流(Cash flow to debt)
违约风险保护
偿债基金
未来债务
红利限制
抵押
债券定价(Bond Pricing)
ParValue
T
C
t
PB
T
t
(1 r )
t 1 (1 r )
T
PB
Ct
T
R
=
=
=
=
债券价格
利息
付息次数
要求收益率
10年期,面值1000, 8%息票率,半
年付息一次
40
1000
PB
20
t
(10.03)
t 1 (1 0.03)
20
PB
Ct
P
T
r
=
=
=
=
=
$1,148.77
40
1000
20 periods
3%
债券价格与要求收益率之间的关系
要求收益率高则债券价格低
要求收益率为零则债券价格为未来现金流之和
价格和要求收益率
Price
Yield
10 年期,面值1000,息票率 = 7%,
当前价格= $950
35
1000
950
T
t
(1 r )
t 1 (1 r )
20
则,收益率r = 3.8635%
收益率折算
折算为年收益率
7.72% = 3.86% x 2
实际年收益率
(1.0386)2 - 1 = 7.88%
当期收益率
$70 / $950 = 7.37 %
实现的收益率和到期收益率
再投资假设
持有期收益
利率变化
利息的再投资
价格变化
持有期收益
HPR
I P0 PI
I = 利息
P1 = 卖出价格
P0 = 买入价格
P0
Example
息票率= 8%
期限 =10年
要求收益率 = 8%
P0
= $1000
由于要求收益率降到 7%
P1
=
$1068.55
HPR =
HPR =
[40 + ( 1068.55 - 1000)] / 1000
10.85% (半年)
债券投资的基本策略
积极策略
预测利率走势
寻找市场的非有效性
消极策略
控制风险
平衡风险与收益
债券定价基本性质
价格和收益率的反向关系
收益增加比收益减少引起的成比例的价格变化较小
长期债券的价格比短期债券的价格对利率的敏感性
更强
随着到期日的增加,价格敏感性的增加呈下降趋势
利率敏感性与息票率呈反向关系
当债券以一较低的到期收益率出售时,债券价格对
收益变化更敏感
久期
A measure of the effective maturity of a bond
The weighted average of the times until each payment
is received, with the weights proportional to the
present value of the payment
Duration is shorter than maturity for all bonds except
zero coupon bonds
Duration is equal to maturity for zero coupon bonds
久期的计算
wt CF t (1 y ) Price
t
T
D t wt
t 1
CFt CashFlow for period t
一个例子
8%
Bond
Time
years
Payment
PV of CF
(10%)
Weight
C1 X
C4
.5
40
38.095
.0395
.0198
1
40
36.281
.0376
.0376
1.5
40
34.553
.0358
.0537
2.0
1040
855.611
.8871
1.7742
sum
964.540
1.000
1.8853
久期与价格之间的关系
P
Dr
P
r =连续复利
P
r
D
P
1 r
r =年复利
修正久期D* = D / (1+y)
Rules for Duration
Rule 1 The duration of a zero-coupon bond equals its
time to maturity
Rule 2 Holding maturity constant, a bond’s duration is
higher when the coupon rate is lower
Rule 3 Holding the coupon rate constant, a bond’s
duration generally increases with its time to maturity
Rule 4 Holding other factors constant, the duration
of a coupon bond is higher when the bond’s yield to
maturity is lower
Rules for Duration (cont’d)
Rules 5 The duration of a level perpetuity is equal to:
(1 y)
y
Rule 6 The duration of a level annuity is equal to:
1 y
T
y
(1 y ) T 1
Rule 7 The duration for a corporate bond is equal to:
1 y (1 y ) T (c y )
y
c[(1 y ) T 1] y
被动管理
Bond-Index Funds
Immunization of interest rate risk
Net worth immunization
Duration of assets = Duration of liabilities
Target date immunization
Holding Period matches Duration
Cash flow matching and dedication
久期和凸性
Price
Pricing Error
from convexity
Duration
Yield
凸性修正
1
Convexity
2
P (1 y )
CFt
2
(1 y )t (t t )
t 1
n
Correction for Convexity:
P
2
1
D y [Conveixity (y ) ]
2
P
Active Bond Management:
Swapping Strategies
Substitution swap
Intermarket swap
Rate anticipation swap
Pure yield pickup
Tax swap
Yield Curve Ride
Yield to
Maturity %
1.5
1.25
.75
Maturity
3 mon
6 mon
9 mon
Contingent Immunization
Combination of active and passive management
Strategy involves active management with a floor rate
of return
As long as the rate earned exceeds the floor, the
portfolio is actively managed
Once the floor rate or trigger rate is reached, the
portfolio is immunized
金融市场学
股票
基本面分析
基本面分析
全球经济
国内经济
行业分析
公司分析
从上到下的方法
全球经济
国家和地区之间的巨大差异
政治风险
汇率风险
Sales
Profits
Stock returns
关键经济变量
Gross domestic product
Unemployment rates
Interest rates & inflation
Consumer sentiment
政府政策
财政政策
直接的效果
缓慢的实施过程
货币政策
Open market operations
Discount rate
Reserve requirements
冲击
需求
税收
政府支出
供给
价格变化
劳动力教育水平
科技进步
经济周期
经济周期
波峰
波谷
行业与经济周期
敏感
不敏感
指标
领先
资本品的订单数
消费者信心指数
股价~~~~~
同步
工业产量
制造品与贸易销售额
滞后
消费品价格指数
失业平均期限
行业分析
对经济周期的敏感度
影响敏感度的因素
产品销售对经济周期的敏感程度
经营杠杆比率
(DOL=净利润变化/销售额变化)
财务杠杆比率
行业生命周期
行业生命周期
Stage
Sales Growth
Start-up
Consolidation
Maturity
Relative Decline
Rapid & Increasing
Stable
Slowing
Minimal or Negative
行业结构
进入威胁
现有企业之间的竞争
来自替代品厂商的压力
购买者的谈判能力
供给厂商的谈判能力
2009年中国统计数据
国内生产总值335353亿元,比上年增长8.7%。
第一产业增加值35477亿元,增长4.2%;第一产业增
加值占国内生产总值的比重为10.6%,比上年下降0.1
个百分点;
第二产业增加值156958亿元,增长9.5%;第二产业增
加值比重为46.8%,下降0.7个百分点;
第三产业增加值142918亿元,增长8.9%;第三产业增
加值比重为42.6%,上升0.8个百分点。
2009年世界总人口为67.8亿,中国人口占世界比例
为21%。
2009年中国统计数据
基础工业数据:
粗钢产量:5.68亿吨,占世界份额的46.6%,超过第2-20名
的总和;钢材产量:6.96亿吨;
水泥产量:16.3亿吨,超过世界份额的50%;
电解铝产量:1285万吨,达到世界份额的60%;
精炼铜产量;413万吨,达到世界份额的25%;进口430万
吨,消费铜超过800万吨,达到世界精铜产量的50%;
煤炭产量:30.50亿吨,占世界份额的45%;
原油产量:1.89亿吨;进口2.04亿吨,消费量占世界的11%;
乙烯产量:1066万吨,世界第二,消费2200万吨;
化肥产量:6600万吨,占世界份额的35%;
塑料产量:4479.3万吨;
2009年中国统计数据
基础设施数据:
新增装机容量8970万千瓦,总装机容量达到8.6亿千
瓦(美国为10亿千瓦);
新建高速公路4719公里,总里程达到6.5万公里(美
国9万公里),09年新开工1.6万公里;
新增公路通车里程9.8万公里(含高速),农村公路
新改建里程38.1万公里;
铁路投产新线5557公里,其中客运专线2319公里;投
产复线4129公里;营业总里程达8.6万公里(仅次于
美国);09年新开工1.2万公里;
2009年中国统计数据
工业产品数据:
汽车产量1379万辆,占世界份额的25%,世界第一;
造船完工量4243万载重吨,占世界份额的34.8%;新
接订单2600万载重吨,占世界份额的61.6%;手持订
单18817万载重吨,占世界份额的38.5%;
微机产量1.82亿台,占世界份额的60%;
彩电产量9899万台,占世界份额的48%;
冰箱产量5930万台,占世界份额的60%;
空调产量8078万台,占世界份额的70%;
洗衣机产量4935万台,占世界份额的40%;
微波炉产量6038万台,占世界份额的70%;
手机产量6.19亿部,占世界份额的50%;
2009年中国统计数据
轻工产品:
纱产量2393.5万吨,占世界份额的46%;
布产量740亿米;
化纤产量2730万吨,占世界份额的57%;
其他:
黄金产量:313.98吨,世界第一;
玻璃产量:5.8亿重量箱,占世界份额的50%;
2009年中国统计数据
农业数据(中国的膳食比例应该是世界上最合理的)
粮食产量5.31亿吨,占世界份额的24%;
肉类产量7642万吨,占世界份额的28%;
禽蛋产量2741万吨,占世界份额的45%;
牛奶产量3518万吨,仅占世界份额的5%;
水产品产量5120万吨,占世界份额的40%;
蔬菜产量5.7亿吨, 占世界份额的50%;
水果产量1.95亿吨,占世界份额的18%;
油料产量3100万吨,占世界份额的7.5%
(中国是世界上最大的大豆进口国);
白糖产量1200万吨, 占世界份额的7%
中美日德2010年1、2月汽车销量
2009年中国统计数据
发展潜力
现在国内人均钢材消费量400多公斤
峰值:美国,711公斤;日本,802公斤
现在国内人均铜消费量6公斤
峰值:日本,12公斤
国内水泥消费人均:1300公斤
峰值:日本,1000公斤;美国,1000公斤
资本估价模型
基本方法
资产负债表估价法
红利贴现法
市盈率方法
评估增长率和增长机会
资产负债表估价法
清算价值(净资产)
重置成本
托宾Q
托宾Q=市值/重置成本
内在价值和市场价格
内在价值
市场价格
交易信号
IV > MP Buy
IV < MP Sell or Short Sell
IV = MP Hold or Fairly Priced
爆仓
红利贴现法的基本原理
Dt
Vo
t
t 1 (1 k )
V0 = Value of Stock
Dt = Dividend
k = required return
无增长模型
D
Vo
k
Stocks that have earnings and dividends that are
expected to remain constant
Preferred Stock
无增长模型的举例
D
Vo
k
E1 = D1 = $5.00
k = .15
V0 = $5.00 / .15 = $33.33
稳定增长模型
Do (1 g )
Vo
kg
g = constant perpetual growth rate
稳定增长模型的举例
Do (1 g )
Vo
kg
E1 = $5.00 b = 40%
k = 15%
(1-b) = 60% D1 = $3.00 g = 8%
V0 = 3.00 / (.15 - .08) = $42.86
估计红利增长率
g ROE b
g = growth rate in dividends
ROE = Return on Equity for the firm
b = plowback or retention percentage rate
(1- dividend payout percentage rate)
特定持有期模型
P
D
D
D
...
V
(1 k ) (1 k ) (1 k )
1
0
N
2
1
2
N
N
PN = the expected sales price for the stock at time
N
N = the specified number of years the stock is
expected to be held
两分定价:增长和无增长成分
E1
Vo
PVGO
k
Do (1 g )
E1
PVGO
(k g)
k
PVGO = Present Value of Growth
Opportunities
E1 = Earnings Per Share for period 1
两分定价举例
ROE = 20% d = 60% b = 40%
E1 = $5.00 D1 = $3.00 k = 15%
g = .20 x .40 = .08 or 8%
两分定价举例
3
Vo
$42.86
(.15.08)
5
NGVo
$33.33
.15
PVGO $42.86 $33.33 $9.52
Vo = value with growth
NGVo = no growth component value
PVGO = Present Value of Growth Opportunities
市盈率
决定市盈率的两个因素
要求收益率
红利预期增长
应用
相对定价
行业分析中的广泛应用
市盈率:无预期增长
E1
P0
k
P0
1
E1
k
E1 - expected earnings for next year
E1 is equal to D1 under no growth
k - required rate of return
市盈率:稳定增长
D1
E 1(1 b)
P0
k g k (b ROE )
P0
1 b
E 1 k (b ROE )
b = retention ratio
ROE = Return on Equity
市盈率:无增长例子
E0 = $2.50
g=0
k = 12.5%
P0 = D/k = $2.50/.125 = $20.00
PE = 1/k = 1/.125 = 8
市盈率:有增长例子
b = 60% ROE = 15% (1-b) = 40%
E1 = $2.50 (1 + (.6)(.15)) = $2.73
D1 = $2.73 (1-.6) = $1.09
k = 12.5% g = 9%
P0 = 1.09/(.125-.09) = $31.14
PE = 31.14/2.73 = 11.4
PE = (1 - .60) / (.125 - .09) = 11.4
市盈率分析中的误区
使用会计数据
收益随经济周期波动
通货膨胀
影响
历史成本低估了经济成本
实证研究表明高通货膨胀通常带来低的实际收益
可能的原因
Shocks cause expectation of lower earnings by market
participants
Returns are viewed as being riskier with higher rates of
inflation
Real dividends are lower because of taxes
金融市场学
资产组合
风险与风险厌恶
风险与风险厌恶
单一前景的风险
风险、投机与赌博
风险厌恶与效用
1
U E (r ) A 2
2
U E(r ) 0.005A 2
均值
2
1
0
2
1
0
标准方差
风险与风险厌恶
无差异曲线特征
斜率为正
下凸
同一投资者有无限多条
不能相交
资产组合风险
资产风险与资产组合风险
资产组合中的数学
一个例子
无风险收益5%
概率
公司A收益率
公司B收益率
正常年份
牛市
熊市
0.5
0.3
25%
10%
1%
-5%
异常
年份
0.2
-25%
35%
风险与风险厌恶
概率分布的描述
一阶矩
二阶矩
高阶矩
正态分布和对数正态分布
风险厌恶与预期效应
风险与无风险资产的配置
将风险资产看作一个整体
无风险资产——短期国债
一种风险资产与一种无风险资产
资产配置线
酬报与波动性比率
风险忍让与资产配置
消极策略——资本市场线
最优风险资产组合
分散化与资产组合风险
两种风险资产的资产组合
资产在风险与无风险之间的配置
Markowitz资产组合选择模型
具有无风险资产限制的最优资产组合
资本资产定价模型
股票需求与价格均衡
积极投资基金对股票的需求
被动投资(指数)基金对股票的需求
价格均衡
A股票
B股票
每股价格
39元
39元
流通股数
500万股
400万股
每年每股红利预期
6.4元
3.8元
要求收益率
16%
10%
40%
20%
市值
年末每股价格预期
资本收益率
红利率
年度总预期收益率
收益率标准差
相关系数
0.2
无风险收益率
5%
A股票
B股票
每股价格
39元
39元
流通股数
500万股
400万股
市值
195百万元
156百万元
每年每股红利预期
6.4元
3.8元
要求收益率
16%
10%
年末每股价格预期
40
38
资本收益率
2.56%
-2.56%
红利率
16.41%
9.74%
年度总预期收益率
18.87%
7.18%
收益率标准差
40%
20%
相关系数
0.2
无风险收益率
5%
资本资产定价模型
为什么所有投资者都持有市场资产组合?
消极策略有效吗?
市场资产组合的风险溢价
单个证券的期望收益
证券市场线
Capital Asset Pricing Model
(CAPM)
Equilibrium model that underlies all modern financial
theory
Derived using principles of diversification with
simplified assumptions
Markowitz, Sharpe, Lintner and Mossin are researchers
credited with its development
Assumptions
Individual investors are price takers
Single-period investment horizon
Investments are limited to traded financial assets
No taxes, and transaction costs
Information is costless and available to all investors
Investors are rational mean-variance optimizers
Homogeneous expectations
Resulting Equilibrium Conditions
All investors will hold the same portfolio for risky
assets – market portfolio
Market portfolio contains all securities and the
proportion of each security is its market value as a
percentage of total market value
Risk premium on the market depends on the average
risk aversion of all market participants
Risk premium on an individual security is a function of
its covariance with the market
Capital Market Line
E(r)
E(rM)
M
rf
m
CML
Slope and Market Risk Premium
M
rf
E(rM) - rf
=
=
=
Market portfolio
Risk free rate
Market risk premium
E(rM) - rf
=
Market price of risk
=
Slope of the CAPM
2
M
Expected Return and Risk on
Individual Securities
The risk premium on individual securities is a
function of the individual security’s contribution
to the risk of the market portfolio
Individual security’s risk premium is a function of
the covariance of returns with the assets that
make up the market portfolio
Security Market Line
E(r)
SML
E(rM)
rf
ß
ß
M
= 1.0
SML Relationships
= [COV(ri,rm)] / m2
Slope SML = E(rm) - rf
= market risk premium
SML = rf + [E(rm) - rf]
Betai
= [Cov (ri,rm)] / m2
Betam
= m2 / m2 = 1
Sample Calculations for SML
E(rm) - rf = .08
rf = .03
x = 1.25
E(rx) = .03 + 1.25(.08) = .13 or 13%
y = .6
E(ry) = .03 + .6(.08) = .078 or 7.8%
Graph of Sample Calculations
E(r)
SML
Rx=13%
.08
Rm=11%
Ry=7.8%
3%
ß
.6
ß
y
1.0
ß
m
1.25
ß
x
Disequilibrium Example
E(r)
SML
15%
Rm=11%
rf=3%
ß
1.0
1.25
Disequilibrium Example
Suppose a security with a of 1.25 is offering
expected return of 15%
According to SML, it should be 13%
Underpriced: offering too high of a rate of return for
its level of risk
CAPM模型的扩展形式
零贝塔模型
生命周期与CAPM模型
CAPM模型与流动性
Black’s Zero Beta Model
Absence of a risk-free asset
Combinations of portfolios on the efficient
frontier are efficient
All frontier portfolios have companion portfolios
that are uncorrelated
Returns on individual assets can be expressed as
linear combinations of efficient portfolios
E (ri ) E (rQ ) E (rP ) E (rQ )
Cov(ri , rP ) Cov(rP , rQ )
P2 Cov(rP , rQ )
Efficient Portfolios and Zero
Companions
E(r)
Q
P
E[rz (Q)]
E[rz (P)]
Z(Q)
Z(P)
Zero Beta Market Model
E (ri ) E (rZ ( M ) ) E (rM ) E (rZ ( M ) )
Cov(ri , rM )
CAPM with E(rz (m)) replacing rf
M2
CAPM & Liquidity
Liquidity
Illiquidity Premium
Research supports a premium for illiquidity
Amihud and Mendelson
CAPM with a Liquidity Premium
E (ri ) rf i E (ri ) rf f (ci )
f (ci) = liquidity premium for security i
f (ci) increases at a decreasing rate
Illiquidity and Average Returns
Average monthly return(%)
Bid-ask spread (%)
单指数证券市场
系统风险与公司特有风险
指数模型的估计
指数模型与分散化
Single Index Model
Reduces the number of inputs for diversification
Easier for security analysts to specialize
ri = E(Ri) + ßiF + e
ßi = index of a securities’ particular return to the factor
F= some macro factor; in this case F is unanticipated
movement; F is commonly related to security returns
Assumption: a broad market index like the S&P500 is
the common factor
Single Index Model
(ri - rf) =
Risk Prem
i
i + ßi(rm - rf) + ei
Market Risk Prem
or Index Risk Prem
= the stock’s expected return if the
market’s excess return is zero
(rm - rf) = 0
ßi(rm - rf) = the component of return due to
movements in the market index
ei = firm specific component, not due to market
movements
Risk Premium Format
Let: Ri = (ri - rf)
Rm = (rm - rf)
Ri =
Risk premium
format
i + ßi(Rm) + ei
Security Characteristic Line
Excess Returns (i)
SCL
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
Excess returns
.
.
.
on market index
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . .
.
.
.
.
. . . . . R =. + ß R + e
i
i
i m
i
Using the Text Example
Jan.
Feb.
.
.
Dec
Mean
Std Dev
Excess
GM Ret.
5.41
-3.44
.
.
2.43
-.60
4.97
Excess
Mkt. Ret.
7.24
.93
.
.
3.90
1.75
3.32
Regression Results
rGM - rf = + ß(rm - rf)
ß
Estimated coefficient
-2.590
Std error of estimate
(1.547)
Variance of residuals = 12.601
Std dev of residuals = 3.550
R-SQR = 0.575
1.1357
(0.309)
Components of Risk
Market or systematic risk: risk related to the macro
economic factor or market index
Unsystematic or firm specific risk: risk not related to
the macro factor or market index
Total risk = Systematic + Unsystematic
Measuring Components of Risk
i2 = i2 m2 + 2(ei)
where;
i2 = total variance
i2 m2 = systematic variance
2(ei) = unsystematic variance
Examining Percentage of
Variance
Total Risk = Systematic Risk + Unsystematic Risk
Systematic Risk/Total Risk = 2
ßi2 m2 / 2 = 2
i2 m2 / i2 m2 + 2(ei) = 2
Index Model and Diversification
RP P P eP
N
P 1N P
i 1
N
P 1 N P
i 1
eP 1
N
N
e
i 1
P
2
P P2 M
2 (eP )
Risk Reduction with
Diversification
St. Deviation
Unique Risk
2(eP)=2(e) / n
P2M2
Market Risk
Number of
Securities
CAPM模型与指数模型
实际收益与期望收益
指数模型与已实现收益
指数模型与期望收益的贝塔关系
指数模型的行业版本
Industry Prediction of Beta
Merrill Lynch Example
Use returns not risk premiums
has a different interpretation
= + rf (1-)
Forecasting beta as a function of past beta
Forecasting beta as a function of firm size, growth,
leverage etc.
多因素模型
经验基础
理论基础
经验模型与ICAPM
Multifactor Models
Use factors in addition to market return
Examples include industrial production, expected
inflation etc.
Estimate a beta for each factor using multiple regression
Fama and French
Returns a function of size and book-to-market value as
well as market returns
套利定价理论
套利机会与利润
充分分散的投资组合
证券市场线
单个资产与套利定价理论
套利定价理论与CAPM模型
多因素套利定价理论
Arbitrage Pricing Theory
Arbitrage - arises if an investor can construct a
zero investment portfolio with a sure profit
Since no investment is required, an investor can
create large positions to secure large levels of
profit
In efficient markets, profitable arbitrage
opportunities will quickly disappear
Arbitrage Example from Text
Current
Expected
Stock Price$ Return%
A
10
25.0
B
10
20.0
C
10
32.5
D
10
22.5
Standard
Dev.%
29.58
33.91
48.15
8.58
Arbitrage Portfolio
Mean
Portfolio
A,B,C 25.83
D
S.D.
6.40
22.25
Correlation
0.94
8.58
Arbitrage Action and Returns
E. Ret.
* P
* D
St.Dev.
Short 3 shares of D and buy 1 of A, B & C to form
P
You earn a higher rate on the investment than
you pay on the short sale
APT & Well-Diversified Portfolios
rP = E (rP) + PF + eP
F = some factor
For a well-diversified portfolio
eP approaches zero
Similar to CAPM
Portfolio &Individual Security
Comparison
E(r)%
E(r)%
F
F
Portfolio
Individual Security
Disequilibrium Example
E(r)%
10
7
6
A
D
C
Risk Free 4
.5
1.0
Beta for F
Disequilibrium Example
Short Portfolio C
Use funds to construct an equivalent risk higher
return Portfolio D
D is comprised of A & Risk-Free Asset
Arbitrage profit of 1%
APT with Market Index Portfolio
E(r)%
M
[E(rM) - rf]
Market Risk Premium
Risk Free
1.0
Beta (Market Index)
APT and CAPM Compared
APT applies to well diversified portfolios and not
necessarily to individual stocks
With APT it is possible for some individual stocks
to be mispriced - not lie on the SML
APT is more general in that it gets to an expected
return and beta relationship without the
assumption of the market portfolio
APT can be extended to multifactor models
金融市场学——期权
攀 登
二OO六年春季
Option Terminology
Buy - Long
Sell - Short
Call
Put
Key Elements
Exercise or Strike Price
Premium or Price
Maturity or Expiration
Market and
Exercise Price Relationships
In the Money - exercise of the option would be
profitable
Call: market price>exercise price
Put: exercise price>market price
Out of the Money - exercise of the option would not
be profitable
Call: market price>exercise price
Put: exercise price>market price
At the Money - exercise price and asset price are
equal
American vs. European Options
American - the option can be exercised at any time
before expiration or maturity
European - the option can only be exercised on the
expiration or maturity date
Different Types of Options
Stock Options
Index Options
Futures Options
Foreign Currency Options
Interest Rate Options
Payoffs and Profits on Options at
Expiration - Calls
Notation
Stock Price = ST Exercise Price = X
Payoff to Call Holder
(ST - X) if ST >X
0
if ST < X
Profit to Call Holder
Payoff - Purchase Price
Payoffs and Profits on Options at
Expiration - Calls
Payoff to Call Writer
- (ST - X) if ST >X
0
if ST < X
Profit to Call Writer
Payoff + Premium
Payoff Profiles for Calls
Payoff
Call Holder
0
Call Writer
Stock Price
Payoffs and Profits at
Expiration - Puts
Payoffs to Put Holder
0
if ST > X
(X - ST) if ST < X
Profit to Put Holder
Payoff - Premium
Payoffs and Profits at
Expiration - Puts
Payoffs to Put Writer
0
if ST > X
-(X - ST)
if ST < X
Profits to Put Writer
Payoff + Premium
Payoff Profiles for Puts
Payoffs
Put Writer
0
Put Holder
Stock Price
Equity, Options &
Leveraged Equity
Investment
Strategy
Investment
Equity only
Buy stock @ 100 100 shares
$10,000
Options only
Buy calls @ 10
Leveraged
equity
Buy calls @ 10
100 options
Buy T-bills @ 2%
Yield
1000 options $10,000
$1,000
$9,000
Equity, Options &
Leveraged Equity - Payoffs
IBM Stock Price
$95
$105
$115
All Stock
$9,500
$10,500
$11,500
All Options
$0
$5,000
$15,000
Lev Equity
$9,270
$9,770
$10,770
Equity, Options &
Leveraged Equity
IBM Stock Price
$95
$105
$115
All Stock
-5.0%
5.0%
15%
All Options
-100%
-50%
50%
Lev Equity
-7.3%
-2.3%
7.7%
Protective Put
Use - limit loss
Position - long the stock and long the put
Payoff
ST < X
ST > X
Stock
ST
ST
Put
X - ST
0
Protective Put Profit
Profit
Stock
Protective Put
Portfolio
-P
ST
Covered Call
Use - Some downside protection at the expense of
giving up gain potential
Position - Own the stock and write a call
Payoff
ST < X
ST > X
Stock
ST
ST
Call
0
- ( ST - X)
Covered Call Profit
Profit
Stock
Covered Call
Portfolio
-P
ST
Option Strategies
Straddle (Same Exercise Price)
Long Call and Long Put
Spreads - A combination of two or more call options
or put options on the same asset with differing
exercise prices or times to expiration
Vertical or money spread
Same maturity
Different exercise price
Horizontal or time spread
Different maturity dates
Put-Call Parity Relationship
ST < X
ST > X
0
ST - X
Payoff for
Call Owned
Payoff for
Put Written-( X -ST)
Total Payoff
ST - X
0
ST - X
Payoff of Long Call
& Short Put
Payoff
Combined =
Leveraged Equity
Long Call
Stock Price
Short Put
Arbitrage & Put Call Parity
Since the payoff on a combination of a long call and a
short put are equivalent to leveraged equity, the
prices must be equal.
C - P = S0 - X / (1 + rf)T
If the prices are not equal arbitrage will be possible
Put Call Parity Disequilibrium Example
Stock Price = 110 Call Price = 17
Put Price = 5
Risk Free = 10.25%
Maturity = .5 yr
X = 105
C - P > S0 - X / (1 + rf)T
17- 5 > 110 - (105/1.05)
12 > 10
Since the leveraged equity is less expensive, acquire
the low cost alternative and sell the high cost
alternative
Put-Call Parity Arbitrage
Position
Immediate
Cashflow
Cashflow in Six Months
ST<105
ST> 105
Buy Stock
-110
ST
ST
Borrow
X/(1+r)T = 100
+100
-105
-105
Sell Call
+17
0
Buy Put
-5
Total
2
105-ST
0
-(ST-105)
0
0
Optionlike Securities
Callable Bonds
Convertible Securities
Warrants
Collateralized Loans
Exotic Options
Asian Options
Barrier Options
Lookback Options
Currency Translated Options
Binary Options
Option Values
Intrinsic value - profit that could be made if the option
was immediately exercised
Call: stock price - exercise price
Put: exercise price - stock price
Time value - the difference between the option price
and the intrinsic value
Time Value of Options: Call
Option
value
Value of Call
Intrinsic Value
Time value
X
Stock Price
Factors Influencing Option
Values: Calls
Factor
Stock price
Exercise price
Volatility of stock price
Time to expiration
Interest rate
Dividend Rate
Effect on value
increases
decreases
increases
increases
increases
decreases
Restrictions on Option Value:
Call
Value cannot be negative
Value cannot exceed the stock value
Value of the call must be greater than the value of
levered equity
C > S 0 - ( X + D ) / ( 1 + Rf ) T
C > S0 - PV ( X ) - PV ( D )
Allowable Range for Call
Call Value
Lower Bound
= S0 - PV (X) - PV (D)
S0
PV (X) + PV (D)
Binomial Option Pricing:
Text Example
200
100
75
C
50
Stock Price
0
Call Option Value
X = 125
Binomial Option Pricing:
Text Example
Alternative Portfolio
Buy 1 share of stock at $100
Borrow $46.30 (8% Rate)
Net outlay $53.70
Payoff
Value of Stock 50 200
Repay loan
- 50 -50
Net Payoff
0 150
150
53.70
0
Payoff Structure
is exactly 2 times
the Call
Binomial Option Pricing:
Text Example
150
53.70
C
0
2C = $53.70
C = $26.85
75
0
Another View of Replication of
Payoffs and Option Values
Alternative Portfolio - one share of stock and 2 calls
written (X = 125)
Portfolio is perfectly hedged
Stock Value
50
200
Call Obligation
0
-150
Net payoff
50
50
Hence 100 - 2C = 46.30 or C = 26.85
Generalizing the
Two-State Approach
Assume that we can break the year into two sixmonth segments
In each six-month segment the stock could increase
by 10% or decrease by 5%
Assume the stock is initially selling at 100
Possible outcomes
Increase by 10% twice
Decrease by 5% twice
Increase once and decrease once (2 paths)
Generalizing the
Two-State Approach
121
110
104.50
100
95
90.25
Expanding to
Consider Three Intervals
Assume that we can break the year into three
intervals
For each interval the stock could increase by 5% or
decrease by 3%
Assume the stock is initially selling at 100
Expanding to
Consider Three Intervals
S+++
S++
S++-
S+
S+-
S
S+-S-
S-S---
Possible Outcomes with
Three Intervals
Event
Probability
Stock Price
3 up
1/8
100 (1.05)3
=115.76
2 up 1 down
3/8
100 (1.05)2 (.97)
=106.94
1 up 2 down
3/8
100 (1.05) (.97)2
= 98.79
3 down
1/8
100 (.97)3
= 91.27
Black-Scholes Option Valuation
Co = SoN(d1) - Xe-rTN(d2)
d1 = [ln(So/X) + (r + 2/2)T] / (T1/2)
d2 = d1 + (T1/2)
where
Co = Current call option value.
So = Current stock price
N(d) = probability that a random draw from a
normal dist. will be less than d.
Black-Scholes Option Valuation
X = Exercise price.
e = 2.71828, the base of the nat. log.
r = Risk-free interest rate (annualizes continuously
compounded with the same maturity as the
option)
T = time to maturity of the option in years
ln = Natural log function
Standard deviation of annualized cont.
compounded rate of return on the stock
Call Option Example
So = 100
X = 95
r = .10
T = .25 (quarter)
= .50
d1 = [ln(100/95) + (.10+(5 2/2))] / (5 .251/2)
= .43
d2 = .43 + ((5.251/2)
= .18
Probabilities from Normal Dist
N (.43) = .6664
Table 17.2
d
N(d)
.42
.6628
.43
.6664 Interpolation
.44
.6700
Probabilities from Normal Dist.
N (.18) = .5714
Table 17.2
d
N(d)
.16
.5636
.18
.5714
.20
.5793
Call Option Value
Co = SoN(d1) - Xe-rTN(d2)
Co = 100 X .6664 - 95 e- .10 X .25 X .5714
Co = 13.70
Implied Volatility
Using Black-Scholes and the actual price of the option,
solve for volatility.
Is the implied volatility consistent with the stock?
Put Option Valuation:
Using Put-Call Parity
P = C + PV (X) - So
= C + Xe-rT - So
Using the example data
C = 13.70 X = 95
S = 100
r = .10
T = .25
P = 13.70 + 95 e -.10 X .25 - 100
P = 6.35
Adjusting the Black-Scholes
Model for Dividends
The call option formula applies to stocks that pay
dividends
One approach is to replace the stock price with a
dividend adjusted stock price
Replace S0 with S0 - PV (Dividends)
Using the Black-Scholes Formula
Hedging: Hedge ratio or delta
The number of stocks required to hedge against the price
risk of holding one option
Call = N (d1)
Put = N (d1) - 1
Option Elasticity
Percentage change in the option’s value given a 1%
change in the value of the underlying stock
Portfolio Insurance - Protecting
Against Declines in Stock Value
Buying Puts - results in downside protection with
unlimited upside potential
Limitations
Tracking errors if indexes are used for the puts
Maturity of puts may be too short
Hedge ratios or deltas change as stock values change