Transcript theorypart2.ppt

Mgt2700: Theory continued
Science,
Scientific Method,
and Truth
Nature of truth
knowledge is socially constructed
Sources of Knowledge
Experience
– but may not be systematic
– may not be universal
Authority
– custom
– tradition
– but how does authority
know?
Sources of Knowledge
Deductive Reasoning
– from general to the specific
Advantages of Deductive
Reasoning
can organize what is already known
– means of linking theory & observation
deductions from theory can provide
hypothesis to determine what
phenomenon to observe
Problems with Deductive
Reasoning
must begin with true premises to arrive at
true conclusions
– premises need not relate to real world
(e.g., mathematical models)
– can argue reasonably how many angels can stand on
head of a pin
Problems with Deductive
Reasoning
it is hard to establish universal truth of
many statements dealing with scientific
phenomenon
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
Experience
Authority
Deductive Reasoning
– from general to the specific
Inductive Reasoning
– from specific to general
– need to observe phenomenon directly
Francis Bacon
In the year of our Lord, 1432, there arose a grievous quarrel among the brethren over the
number of teeth in the mouth of a horse. For thirteen days the disputation raged without ceasing.
All the ancient books and chronicles were fetched out, and wonderful and ponderous erudition
was made manifest. At the beginning of the fourteenth day a youthful friar of goodly bearing
asked his learned superiors for permission to add a word, and straightway, to the wonder of the
disputants, whose deep wisdom he sorely vexed, he beseeched them in a manner coarse and
unheard of, to look in the mouth of a horse and find answers to their questionnings. At this, their
dignity being grievously hurt, they waxed exceedingly wroth; and joining in a mighty uproar
they flew upon him and smote him hip and thigh and cast him out forthwith. For, said they,
"Surely Satan hath tempted this bold neophyte to declare unholy and unheard-of-ways of finding
truth, contrary to all the teachings of the fathers." After many days of grievous strife the dove of
peace sat on the assembly, and they, as one man, declaring the problem to be an everlasting
mystery because of the dearth of historical and theological evidence thereof, so ordered the same
writ down.
—Attributed to Bacon, cited in Best and Kahn, Research in Education, 8th edition, pp.4-5.
Inductive Reasoning
perfect induction
– when dealing with small enough sample, can
observe every case, so infallible conclusions
imperfect induction
– when dealing with larger groups, extrapolate
from sample, so may be open to error
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
Experience
Authority
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
Experience
Authority
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Scientific Method
– inductive - deductive
THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
OBSERVATIONS
Inductively
If compatible with the
organized body of accepted
knowledge, these
hypotheses will be tested
by the gathering of empirical data
HYPOTHESES
Deductively
LOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
OF THE
HYPOTHESES
THEORY
is a system for explaining a set of
phenomena by specifying constructs and
the laws that relate these constructs to
each other.
The ultimate goal of science is
theory formation
Theories knit together the results of
observations, enabling scientists to make
general statements about variables and the
relationships among variables
Purpose of Theories
to summarize and organize existing
knowledge
Purpose of Theories
to explain observed events and
relationships
Purpose of Theories
to predict the occurrence of unobserved
events and relationships
Purpose of Theories
to stimulate further inquiry
– identifying areas
– providing leads
Factors to consider when
Evaluating
Research
Is the research hypothesis...
sufficiently specific?
clearly stated?
Inspect for deliberate bias / distortion when
investigator has vested interest in results supporting a
particular viewpoint
highly emotional issues are involved
states "this study was conducted to prove”
number of cases upon which percentages are based is
either not indicated or is low
Inspect for deliberate bias / distortion when
figures are calculated to several decimal places
surprising or newsworthy findings reward the
researcher with career-making publicity
objective findings are distorted by mass media to
make them "more newsworthy"
only a few key studies are cited
Inspect for non-deliberate bias
Inspect for sampling bias when
the research is based on volunteers
there is high subject mortality
group selection criteria may be inappropriate
Inspect for sampling bias
in causal-comparative studies
experimental vs. control group
when subjects may not be representative of the
population
Check for omission of
important variables
Undertake critical evaluation of
measurement techniques
reliability
validity
appropriateness of the test norms
Inspect for observer bias
Developing the Research Proposal
Introduction & research problem statement
– Literature review
– Identify problems
– State significance of problems
– Research ideas
– Contribution to knowledge and practice
Formulating hypothesis
Selecting possible measures
Selecting research sources
Specifying research design
Selecting analysis procedures
Specifying research activities